Fish maw
Fish bladder as food

Fish maw
Fish maw with abalone and broccoli
Alternative namesFish sound
Translations
TypeFish, offal
Associated cuisine
Main ingredientsSwim bladder
Chinese name
Chinese花胶
Traditional Chinese花膠
Simplified Chinese魚肚
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinyúdǔ
  •   Media: Fish maw

Fish maw (also fish sound) is the swim bladder[a] of a fish, eaten as offal. Typically dried or fried but also cooked from fresh, fish maw is largely collagen. It is a traditional food in cuisines dominated by fishing, and a particular delicacy in Chinese cuisine - one of the four sea delicacies - as well as being valued in traditional Chinese medicine. The modern demand for fish maw from Pacific Asia supports wildlife trade worldwide for quality fish maw, which has in turn led to wildlife smuggling and poaching.

Description

Fish maw is largely purchased by consumers either fried (left, a.k.a. "oily") or dried (right). Both preparations are soaked before cooking.

Fish maw is typically preserved by either drying or frying. The standard for fish maw is a consistent white-yellow color and minimal odor. Fish maw is prepared by soaking, and takes on a soft yet toothsome, slippery consistency when cooked.[2][3]

The size and body weight ratio of swim bladders varies significantly depending on the region and species: on the Arafura Sea, an average fish bladder weighs 40 grams (1.4 oz), in a ~1:112.5 ratio against the total fish's weight;[4] on the coast of Brazil, maw to flesh ratio ranges from 1:20 to 1:70;[5] and in Vietnam, pangasius maw is a 1:7 weight ratio.[6]

Trade

The swim bladder is attached to the fish's spine, and is removed during processing. High value fish maw is typically removed and dried onboard fishing vessels when conditions allow.[7][8]

Established commercial fishing industries worldwide sell swim bladders as by-product to fish maw importers. In 2018, the Norwegian fishing industry supplied over 25% of the world fish maw market share, largely with codfish, followed by Russia at 14.9%. Other prominent exporters in the Chinese fish maw import market include Iceland, which exports cod and true ling, and New Zealand, which exports Genypterus blacodes or New Zealand ling.[9][10]

The Chinese demand for wild-caught fish maw, particularly from exotic foreign fish, has increased significantly since the reform and opening up of China. The greatest determiner of value is the origin species. Sciaenidae (croakers or drums) maw demands the highest price, for its perceived superior quality over other species. The average price per kilogram for fish maw is 72 times higher than the price of flesh, and can reach over 8000 times higher in extreme circumstances like the totoaba trade; in these cases, the rest of the fish becomes byproduct, and is often discarded.[5][11]

Atlantic

The fish maw trade in Brazil has grown significantly since fishermen pivoted from the shark's fin trade; the Brazilian government banned shark finning in 2012, and has introduced other restrictions on shark fishing since. Between 2015 and 2018, Brazil was the largest exporter of fish maw to Hong Kong at 3,300 tonnes (3,600 short tons), valued at HK$3 billion; 95% of exported maws came from Para, Brazil. Brazilian export of fish byproducts, including fish maw, increased by 398% from 2012 to 2020; 97% of fish byproducts were exported to China in 2021.[11] Mirroring worldwide trends, Sciaenidae maw fetches the highest price at market in Brazil; Ariidae maw, although being significantly larger, is frequently sold in unsorted bulk (Portuguese: ariru).[5]

Indian Ocean

As of 2022, India is one of five countries that produced 50% of the world fish bladder supply and 70% of its value. The Indian swim bladder trade dates back to the 1800s for isinglass production, and has been regulated by the Indian government under the Harmonized System since 2002. Increasing demand from East Asia has driven fishing of croakers in particular, fueling an auction market in the major fishing and export ports Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai and Veraval. There is little domestic Indian demand for fish maw.[12]

Bangladesh has a developing fish maw trade in the Karnaphuli delta targeting the high-value maws of Johnius coitor [es] (datina koral) and Pomadasys argenteus, and Indian salmon. Less valuable but still traded fish maw species include Pangasius hypophthalmus, Labeo rohita, Catla catla, Wallago attu, and Leptomelanosoma indicum.[9][13]

East Africa

Ugandan man carrying Nile perch, Ggaba landing site

Introduced in the 1950s, the population of Nile perch in Lake Victoria has been targeted for its maw since the mid-2010s in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.[14]

Central & East Indo-Pacific

2024 Vietnamese export of pangasius maw has increased to about US$58,000,000, with 38% going to China and the rest to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and the USA. The Vietnam News Agency claims that the falling totoaba population has incentivized Chinese import of alternative maw.[6]

The island and seas of New Guinea see significant fish maw production. Since 2012, in and around the Kikori River delta of Papua New Guinea, the scaly croaker Nibea squamosa [es] has been targeted in gillnetting for its extremely high-priced maw, selling for as much as US$15,615 per kilogram.[15][4]

Cultured meat

Hong Kong company Avant Meats has developed a cultured meat replacement for fish maw. As of 2021, the company claims to produce cultured fish maw at a cost of US$70 per pound.[16]

Consumption by region

Anglophone North Atlantic

Recipes for fish maw, specifically codfish maw, are documented in Hannah Glasse's 1747 English cuisine cookbook The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy: fish maw is presented in gravy, broiled, and as a fricassee.[17] Cod maw was later described as a 'delicacy' in the 1911 American food industry encyclopedia, The Grocer's Encyclopedia, by Artemas Ward.[18]

Canada

Cod maw is a traditional food of Newfoundland, owing to the ubiquity of the cod fishing industry. It was typically salted for preservation until use, then boiled and stewed. The popularity of cod maw dropped in the late 20th century along with cod tongue and cheeks, but has begun to see a resurgence with culinary tourism and interest in nose to tail eating.[19]

China

Fish maw noodle shop, Macau, China

Fish maw (Chinese: 魚肚, yúdǔ; Yue Chinese: 花胶, fa kau[2]; Mandarin Chinese: 花膠, yújiāo, fa gau[20]) or "sea ginseng"[21] is a delicacy in Chinese cuisine, particularly Zhejiang cuisine. Consumption of fish maw in China may go back to the Han Dynasty, c. 206 BCE-220 CE.[22] The History of the Southern Dynasties documents fish maw soaked in honey being served in royal court during the Northern and Southern dynasties period, c. 420-589 CE.[3] Consumption of rockfish fish maw was documented in the 6th century Qimin Yaoshu.[23]

Fish maw is one of the four sea delicacies of Chinese cuisine, along with abalone, sea cucumber, and shark's fin. Fish maw from larger fish species is more prestigious; the restaurant trade buys smaller maw. Fish maw from male fish is preferred for its relative thickness and resilience to dissolving.[2][21] Until the late 20th century, the Chinese bahaba or giant yellow croaker Bahaba taipingensis of the China Seas was the premier source of fish maw. However, overfishing has driven the Chinese bahaba population to near-extinction, and raised demand for similar fish, particular the related Sciaenidae.[8][24]

As of 2016, Southern China and Hong Kong had the largest demand for fish maw.[24]

Source fish

The Environmental Investigation Agency in 2016 estimated that 34 species of fish were being traded on the wider Chinese fish maw market. Sciaenidae (croakers/drums) are typically the most valued, due to their similarity to the historically prized and critically endangered Chinese bahaba. Other targeted fishes include eels, stonefishes, lates perch, groupers, threadfins and sturgeon.[2][24][8][11][12]

Traditional Chinese medicine

Fish maw, particularly of rare fish, is highly valued in traditional Chinese medicine. TCM practitioners recommend fish maw for the post-partum period and recovering from surgery. It is also valued as a cosmetic: its high level of collagen is believed to improve one's skin.[23][25]

Portugal

Codfish maw (Portuguese: sames) was salted and brought back to Portugal, and eaten as a fisherman's dish. Portuguese sailors from Figueira da Foz would rely on codfish maw as a byproduct of cod fishing in Newfoundland.[7] Feijoada is traditionally made with fish maw instead of pork in Figuerira de Foz (Feijoada de sames).[26]

Southeast Asia

In Peranakan cuisine across Maritime Southeast Asia, fish maw is a traditional Chinese New Year food. The ingredient features particularly in hee pio soup (a.k.a. hu pioh t'ng), a clear soup of fish maw paired with a varied selection of other vegetables and proteins.[27][28]

In Thailand, a Thai cuisine fish maw dish is kaeng tai pla (Thai: แกงไตปลา), a Southern Thai fishermen dish featuring tai pla, fermented fish maw.[29] Krapaw pla [th] is a Thai-Chinese fish maw stew in a red braise.[30][31]

Vietnamese cuisine does not typically feature fish maw,[32] but fish maw is sometimes featured in xúp cua [vi], a Vietnamese crab soup (súp cua bong bóng cá).[33][34]

Crime

Poaching

Totoaba caught in 2017

A major target of poaching is the totoaba in the Gulf of California, due to its perceived similarity to the traditional high-grade swim bladder of Bahaba taipingensis. The totoaba, a critically endangered species, is protected by CITES. Poachers use gillnets to capture the totoaba, and often remove the valuable bladder and toss the dead fish into the sea to minimize evidence.[24]

Poaching operations are backed by a transnational organized crime ring known by the moniker 'the Dragon Cartel': a cooperation between Chinese organized crime and Mexican cartels, particularly the Sinaloa cartel, operating in Mexicali, Baja California. Mexican cartels poach totoaba maw (Spanish: buches) and smuggle them through local restaurateurs to international ports like Vancouver, trading them with Chinese criminals for the chemical precursors to fentanyl. As of 2021, a single totoba maw sells for US$3-5,000 equivalent in Mexico, US$10-15,000 in the US, and US$60,000 in China. For its high price and involvement with drug trafficking, totoaba maw has been given the media moniker "cocaine of the sea".[35][36][37][15]

In 2019, internal documents of the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) of Mexico claimed that the government has minimally investigated cartel activity.[b] SEMARNAT's prosecution branch PROFEPA [es] opened 42 investigations into totoaba poaching between 2012 and 2021, resulting in two arrests.[35]

Counterfeiting

In major re-export hubs like Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong, fish maw is frequently mislabeled as more expensive varieties of fish, due to high profit incentive and the high level of visual similarity between disparately priced species.[1][20]

Smuggling

Fish maw, Hong Kong

Hong Kong is a major stop-over for foreign fish maw to be smuggled into mainland China, in order to circumvent food-safety import laws.[8][24]

In Kenya, fish maw fished from Lake Victoria is smuggled through to Uganda and Tanzania to avoid export duties to China, as China charges a GDP-dependent duty on imports.[14]

Side-selling

In Lake Victoria fishing operations, there is an endemic issue of contracted fisherman side-selling the maw of Nile perch to middlemen instead of giving the catch to the contractor: middlemen rendezvous and buy maw on the lake, and the fish carcass is discarded into the lake to destroy evidence.[14]

Environmental impact

Bycatch

Dolphin in ocean with fishing vessels
A vaquita (foreground) in the Gulf of California, with fishing boats (background)

Gillnets may used in fish maw fishing. However, gillnets can have high rates of bycatch. In the Gulf of California, gillnets set by poachers to catch totoaba also inadvertently catch vaquita, a critically endangered porpoise. The population of vaquita dropped 92% from 1997 to 2015, in large part from totoaba poaching.[24] The 2019 documentary Sea of Shadows documented and condemned totoaba poaching and its negative effect on the vaquita population.[35]

In the Kikori River Delta of Papua New Guinea, gillnet fishermen trying to target the scaly croaker Nibea squamosa [es] regularly trap elasmobranchs and dolphins as bycatch: targeted fish make up less than a quarter of the total catch.[15]

Dumping

In commercial fishing on the Arafura Sea off of Western New Guinea, as much as 51.4% of fish catch by weight was discarded at sea in favor of the swim bladder in 2018.[4]

Fish dumping on Lake Victoria after removing the swim bladder from Nile perch has led to eutrophication of the lake.[14][38]

Fish stocks

Overfishing of fish species targeted for their fish bladders has led to fish stock collapse. The first major population decline from the swim bladder trade was of the Chinese bahaba or giant yellow croaker Bahaba taipingensis of the China Seas. While Chinese bahaba fishing was banned for domestic trade in 1989 after the classification of the fish as Class II under the Wildlife Protection Law of the People's Republic of China [zh], the Chinese bahaba population continued to decline and was added to the IUCN Red List in 2009.[8]

The totoaba began to be targeted for its perceived similarity to the Chinese bahaba by the 1920s, and increased in scope until it was categorized as a vulnerable species.[8]

On Lake Victoria, there is increased usage of illegal monofilament nets and targeting of undersized fish, impacting the Nile perch population. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania have beach patrols and fishing regulations to regulate the fish maw trade.[14][39]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Fish maw is sometimes mistranslated or erroneously identified as the stomach.[1]: Fig1 
  2. ^ "An internal report by the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources presented in August 2019 to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (Cites) in Geneva, Switzerland, says that the Mexican government barely collects information on organised crime despite identifying it as “a matter of national security in terms of sustainability”."[35]

References

  1. ^ a b Seah, Ying Giat; Wainwright, Benjamin J. (2025). "An Assessment of the Fish Maw Trade in Singapore and Malaysia Reveals Threatened Species and Highlights the Need for a More Complete Assessment of the Conservation Status of the World's Fishes". Conservation Letters. 18 (3) e13115. doi:10.1111/conl.13115. ISSN 1755-263X.
  2. ^ a b c d Choo, Kerri; Choki, Dechen; Howieson, Janet (2016), "Barramundi Swim Bladders: Optimisation of Appendix 12: Sanitising, Cleaning And Drying Of Air Bladders For Human Consumption" (PDF), New Opportunities for Seafood Processing Waste, Australia: Fisheries Research & Development Corporation
  3. ^ a b Newman, Jacqueline M. (2004), "Fish Maw", Flavors & Fortune, vol. 3, no. 11, South Setauket, New York: Institute for the Advancement of the Science and Art of Chinese Cuisine, pp. 25–27
  4. ^ a b c Zulham, A; Hikmah, H; Shafitri, N (November 1, 2019). "Fisheries in Merauke: linking fishermen to markets". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 348 (1) 012051. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/348/1/012051. ISSN 1755-1307.
  5. ^ a b c Jimenez, Érica Antunes; Leitão Barboza, Roberta Sá; da Silva Garcia, Jamile; Cristina da Silva Correa, Ellen; Amaral, Marilu Teixeira; Frédou, Flávia Lucena (October 15, 2021). "International trade of Amazon fish byproducts: Threats and opportunities for coastal livelihoods". Ocean & Coastal Management. 212 105812. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105812. ISSN 0964-5691.
  6. ^ a b China spends 21 million USD importing Vietnam's pangasius fish maws, Vietnam News Agency, 2024-02-10 – via Vietnam+
  7. ^ a b "Fish Maw Stew", Encyclopedia of Codfish, Lisbon: Centro Interpretativo da História do Bacalhau, 2025-08-07
  8. ^ a b c d e f Hui, Lulu Ning; Reed, Sarita (2022-01-20), 'Gold in the sea': Brazil's booming fish bladder trade, Al Jazeera
  9. ^ a b Illius, Shamsuddin (2020-01-26), Fish maw no longer worthless!, Bangladesh: TBS News
  10. ^ Wang, Wan Mei (2019-05-14), Norwegian cod by-products in the Chinese market, Norwegian College of Fishery Science, The Arctic University of Norway
  11. ^ a b c Ben-Hasan, Abdulrahman; Sadovy de Mitcheson, Yvonne; Cisneros-Mata, Miguel A.; Jimenez, Érica Antunes; Daliri, Moslem; Cisneros-Montemayor, Andrés M.; Nair, Rekha J.; Thankappan, Sangeetha A.; Walters, Carl J.; Christensen, Villy (October 2021). "China's fish maw demand and its implications for fisheries in source countries". Marine Policy. 132 104696. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104696.
  12. ^ a b Akhilesh, K.V.; Nakhawa, A.D.; Bhendekar, S.N.; Chellappan, Anulekshmi; Kizhakudan, Shoba Joe; Zacharia, P.U. (2022-07-12). "Fish swim-bladder trade in India". Marine Fisheries Information Service. Technical and Extension Series (251). India: Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute: 29–32. ISSN 0254-380X.
  13. ^ Das, Suji Krishna (March 2025), "Utilisation and Processing of Fish By-Products in Bangladesh: Valuable Treasures, Not Trash" (PDF), INFOFISH International, Malaysia: INFOFISH, pp. 54–58
  14. ^ a b c d e Omollo, Kevin (October 14, 2024). "How legal gaps are promoting illicit fish bladder trade in Lake Victoria - InfoNile". Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  15. ^ a b c Chandler, Jo (October 10, 2024). "'Cocaine of the seas' — how a luxury food is wreaking ecological mayhem". Nature. 634 (8033): 284–286. doi:10.1038/d41586-024-03259-8. ISSN 0028-0836.
  16. ^ Gunia, Amy (2021-09-17). "I Tried Lab-Grown Fish Maw. Here's Why It Could Help Save Our Oceans". TIME. Archived from the original on 2025-04-30. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  17. ^ Hannah Glasse (1747). The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy Which far exceeds any Thing of the Kind yet published. England. pp. 85, 135–136.
  18. ^ Ward, Artemas (1911). The Grocer's Encyclopedia. New York. p. 158.
  19. ^ Perrin, Todd (2015-03-26), A Swim Bladder Is a Terrible Thing to Waste, interviewed by Simon Thibault, Vice News
  20. ^ a b Sadovy de Mitcheson, Yvonne; To, Allen Wai-lun; Wong, Nga Wing; Kwan, Hiu Yin; Bud, Wing Sum (December 2019). "Emerging from the murk: threats, challenges and opportunities for the global swim bladder trade". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 29 (4): 809–835. doi:10.1007/s11160-019-09585-9. ISSN 0960-3166.
  21. ^ a b Newman, Jacqueline M. (2014), "Fish Maw Revisted [sic]", Flavors & Fortune, vol. 2, no. 21, South Setauket, New York: Institute for the Advancement of the Science and Art of Chinese Cuisine
  22. ^ Fong, Quentin; Zheng, Qiujie; et al. (University of Alaska Fairbanks) (2016), Synopsis of the Hong Kong Seafood Market (PDF), Alaska Sea Grant, USA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
  23. ^ a b 花胶怎样吃？怎样选？越贵越好吗？看这一篇就够了 [How to eat fish maw? How to choose it? Is it better if it is more expensive? This is the only article you need to read.] (in Chinese), Traditional Chinese Medicine Bureau of Guangdong Province, 2021-04-23
  24. ^ a b c d e f COLLATERAL DAMAGE: How illegal trade in totoaba swim bladders is driving the vaquita to extinction (PDF), London: Environmental Investigation Agency, September 2016
  25. ^ Christian, Emily; Snyder, Chris (2023-10-05). "How Chinese demand for fish maw (swim bladder) fuels a $52 million industry in Uganda". Business Insider. Retrieved 2025-12-17.
  26. ^ Fernandes, Daniel (2016-06-01), "Feijoada de Sames", Portuguese Traditional Products (in Portuguese), Portugal: Direção-Geral de Agricultura e Desenvolvimento Rural
  27. ^ Phua, Rachel (March 14, 2022). "Peranakan food: A guide to one of Southeast Asia's most popular cuisines". CNN. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  28. ^ Loke, Hoi Weng; Leong, Quee Ling; et al. (Centre of Excellence for Research, Value Innovation and Entrepreneurship), "Scrumptious Peranakan Recipes: A Taste of History and Culture" (PDF), Office of Postgraduate Studies, Research @ UCSI, vol. 5, no. 4, Kuala Lumpur: UCSI University, p. 3
  29. ^ "The Spicier the Better! 6 Spicy Thai Dishes You Must Try". MICHELIN Guide. Retrieved 2025-12-15.
  30. ^ กระเพาะปลาน้ำแดง - Fish maw soup in red broth, Chef's Club, Makro, archived from the original on 2025-03-28
  31. ^ "Braised Fish Maw - Cookery of Thailand". foodof.com. Archived from the original on 2025-04-23. Retrieved 2025-12-15.
  32. ^ Bình, Theo Nguyễn (September 29, 2021). "Bộ phận siêu đắt trong con cá, được ví ngang tổ yến". kienthuc.net.vn (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2025-12-31. Cá là một thực phẩm rất quen thuộc đối với các gia đình Việt. Tuy nhiên, trong con cá, có một bộ phận rất ngon, giàu dinh dưỡng nhưng nhiều người lại có thói quen không ăn nên vứt bỏ. Đó chính là bong bóng cá. [Fish is a very familiar food for Vietnamese families. However, in the fish, there is a very delicious and nutritious part that many people have the habit of not eating and therefore discard. That's the fish bladder.]
  33. ^ Trẻ, Trí Thức (September 29, 2018). "Không chỉ có mỗi óc heo, còn hàng tá các món súp cua hấp dẫn ở Sài Gòn đang chờ bạn khám phá". kenh14.vn (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  34. ^ Nguyên, Trúc (December 25, 2019). "Xì xụp tô súp cua bong bóng cá "đắt nhưng đáng" độc quyền ở quận 5". Báo Phụ Nữ (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  35. ^ a b c d Cuéllar, Alejandra (May 10, 2021). "The "Dragon Cartel" is beating Mexico's government on totoaba trafficking". Dialogue Earth. Retrieved 2025-12-15.
  36. ^ "How Mexican cartels and Chinese criminal networks are moving 'cocaine of the sea' through Canadian ports | CBC News". CBC. Archived from the original on 2025-10-20. Retrieved 2025-12-15.
  37. ^ Schué, Romain (February 12, 2025). "Poisson contre poison: un troc entre criminels pour fabriquer du fentanyl au Canada". Radio-Canada (in Canadian French). Retrieved 2025-12-15.
  38. ^ Okumu, Willis (2023-08-31). "Chinese markets deplete Lake Victoria's Nile perch". ISS Africa. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  39. ^ Okumu, Willis (2023-08-31). "Chinese markets deplete Lake Victoria's Nile perch". ISS Africa. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
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