Hlai文法がある

この記事は、中国海南島のライ（黎）族が話すライ語族の標準化ハスライ語の文法を解説するものである。品詞は名詞、動詞、形容詞、接続詞、数詞、副詞、代名詞である。^{[1] [2]}

導入

ライ族（中国語では黎族）は、海南島南部の先住民です。クラ・ダイ族に属する彼らは、少なくとも2,000年から6,000年前にこの地に定住したと考えられており、7,000年から27,000年前にこの島に到達した古代人の遺伝子マーカーを受け継いでいます。^[3]彼らが話していた先ライ語は、後に祖ライ語へと進化し、さらに現代のライ語へと発展しました。

1956年6月、中国政府は海南島のハライ族の言語の研究を実施した。

1983 年の報告書Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究) ^[4]は、ライ語は侾黎、Gheis 杞黎、Hyuen 本地黎、Moeifou 美孚黎、Deitou加茂黎の 5 つの言語で構成されている^{と主張しました}。教育に関しては、楽東宝有保定村（中国語：乐东抱由镇保定村）のハス（中国語：侾方言罗活土语）のローシュエット方言がリー族の標準語として選ばれた。この言語から「李正書法」（中国語:黎文方案）が開発されました。

1984年9月、中央民族大学と中国社会科学院少数民族研究所の2つの機関が、リー語の正書法にいくつかの改訂を行いました。ライ語の正書法は、 『基礎リー語講座』（ピンイン：Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng、中国語：黎語基础教程）という教科書の出版によって確定しました。 ^[5]

2019年末、Hlai語辞書が正式にオンライン公開されました（http://www.tunhlai.com）。

音韻論と正書法

子音

ハス・フライ語には31の子音があります。^[6] /ȶ/はコーダとしてのみ見られます。

（まだ作業中）		唇	歯槽骨		歯槽 口蓋	軟口蓋		声門
			無地	歯擦音		無地	研究室	無地	研究室	友達。
鼻腔		メートル[メートル]	n [ n ]		ny [ ȵ ]	ng [ ŋ ]	ngw [ ŋʷ ]
破裂音/ 破擦音	吸引された	p [ pʰ ]	t [ tʰ ]	c, q [ tsʰ ]		k [ kʰ ]	kw [ kʷʰ ]	（ʔ）
	無声	b [ p ]	d [ t ]	z, j [ ts ]	ty [ ȶ ]	g [ k ]	gw [ kʷ ]
	有声音					gh [ ɡ ]	ghw [ ɡʷ ]
	破裂する	bh [ ɓ ]	dh [ ɗ ]
	横方向	bl [ pˡ ]
摩擦音	無声	f [ f ]	hl [ ɬ ]					h [ h ]	hw [ hʷ ]	hy [ hʲ ]
	有声音	v [ v ]		dz [ z ]
近似値		w [ ˀw ]	l [ l ]		y [ ˀj ]
トリル			r [ r ]

注:

1. /ʔ/はヌルイニシャルです
2. /ʔw/と/ʔj/は声門化される
3. ハスフライ語では、軟口蓋破裂音は摩擦音形（/k/ > /x/ など）で異音化します。
4. /f/、/v/は唇歯音、/m/、/b/、/p/、/pʰ/、/pl/は両唇音です。

母音韻

^{[7] [説明が必要]}

		核
		あ[あ]		e [ e ]		私[私]		お[お]		u [ u ]		うう[ ɯ ]
		短い	長さ	短い	長さ	短い	長さ	短い	長さ	短い	長さ	短い	長さ
コーダ	-あ					ia [ia]				ua [ua]		うあ [ɯa]
	-私	愛 [あい]	アエイ [アイ]	えい [ɵi]					オエイ [おーい]	ui [ウイ]	uei [uːi]		ウエイ [ɯːi]
	-u	au [au]	aeu [あぅ]		eeu [欧州連合]	iu [iu]	ieu [iːu]	あなた [ou]
	-ɯ	アウ [あɯ]		えう [eɯ]
	-m	午前 [午前]	エイム [午前]	それら [em]	イーム [eːm]	私は [私は]	iem [私は]	オム [om]	oem [oːm]			うーん [ɯm]	ウエム [ɯːm]
	-n	一つの [an]	アーン [あーん]	エン [en]	een [eːn]	で [で]	イエン [で]		オーエン [の上]	国連 [国連]	ウエン [国連]	ううん [ɯn]	uuen [ɯːn]
	-ȵ	どれでも [アシュ]	エイニー [あːȵ]	エニー [エシュ]						ユニ [uȵ]	ウエニー [uːȵ]
	-ŋ	アン [aŋ]	アエン [あːŋ]	英語 [eŋ]	イーング [eːŋ]	ing [で]	イエング [で]	オング [の上]	oeng [の上]		ウェン [国連]	ウング [ɯŋ]	ウーエン [ɯːŋ]
	-p	ap [ap]	エープ [aːp]	エピソード [エピソード]	イープ [eːp]	ip [ip]	iep [iːp]	op [op]	オープ [oːp]			うーん [ɯp]	uuep [ɯːp]
	-t	で [で]	アエト [で]	ら [et]	EET [eːt]	それ [それ]	iet [それ]		oet [oːt]	しかし [ut]	ウエト [uːt]	uut [ɯt]	ウエト [ɯːt]
	-ȶ	アティ [あ]	アエティ [あːȶ]	エティ [eȶ]					品性 [おːȶ]	ウティ [uȶ]	uety [uːȶ]
	-k	ak [ak]	エク [あーく]	ek [ek]	きゃー [eːk]	いいね [ik]	週 [iːk]	わかりました [わかりました]	オーク [わかりました]		ウエク [uːk]	uuk [ɯk]	uuek [ɯːk]

トーン

ハス・フライ語には3つの声調があります。それぞれの声調は、音節が破裂音で終わるか（「主音」）^[要説明] 、破裂音で終わらないか（「平音」）^[要説明]によって、2つの形態をとります。

（作業中）	「レベルトーン」		「トニックトーン」
ハイフォール	（何も追加されていません）[꜒꜔]	カイ（鶏）	（ストップが2倍になります）[꜒꜔]	oekk（飲む）
ハイフラット	x [꜒꜒]	税金（「米」）	（何も追加されていません）[꜒꜒]	hliet（切る）
ローフラット	s [꜖꜖]	pas（「父」）	s [꜖꜖]	daeps（ロープ）

名詞

普通名詞

人類/人物に関連する

• 【baiskaux】: (1) 女性、(2) 妻。夫が自分の妻を呼ぶときにのみ使用します。他人の妻を呼ぶときは失礼な言葉です。
• 【pasmaen】：（１）男、（２）夫、妻が自分の夫を呼ぶときにのみ使用する。他人の夫を呼ぶときは失礼な言葉である。
• 【baisdza】：母親。語り手が使う。子供が自分の母親を呼ぶときは「bais」を使う。
• 【pasdza】：(1) 父。語り手が用いる。子供が自分の父親を呼ぶときは「pas」を使う。(2) 年配の男性を敬って呼ぶ。

物に関連する

• 【ghang】: 丘、山
• 【名詞/名詞】: (1) 水; (2) 川
• 【laengs】: 海
• 【fei】: (1) n.: 火; (2) v.: 歩く
• 【米】: 米

時間や空間に関連する

• 【hwanneix】: 今日;【uuhaux】: 明日
• 【パイドゥー】: 上;【パイスフー】: 下; 【paiskueng】: 右;【paishluums】: 左

固有名詞

人々

• 漢名（中国語）：李氏の中国語名はすべて借用語であり、黄流（ウイスリウス）と呼ばれる地域の海南語から借用されたものである。たとえば、Maeus zek dhongx （中華人民共和国の建国の父、毛沢東（毛泽东））。
• Hlai 名: リー族の人々は、通常、自分たちの言語 (Hlai) に由来する名前で子供たちを呼びます。

グループ/組織/政党

• これらは海南語からの外来語です。たとえば、Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党)、中国共産党などです。

場所

• これらは海南語からの外来語です。たとえば、Bhakgengs、「北京、北京（中華人民共和国の首都）」。Haeisnaems dhaeus、「海南島、海南岛」;ロクドン、「レドン、乐东（ハスライ族の中心都市）」

国家

• ほとんどは海南語からの借用語です。例: Dangx Gok（中国）
• 借用語ではないものはほとんどありません。たとえば、Moei、「漢民族、汉族」などです。 Hlai、「黎族」

抽象名詞

これらの名詞はほとんどが借用語です。実用的かつ具体的な性質を持つライ語は、無形のものを説明するのには適していません。^[要出典]

名詞の基本ルール

^{[8] [9] [2]}

1. 名詞は通常、数字だけで修飾することはできません。名詞を修飾するには、数字の後に 適切な助数詞が必要です。

ズー

1つ

ラン

CL

dzax

蛇

zuu lang dzax

a/one CL snake

「ヘビ」

ただし、日付に関連付けられた名詞 (年、月、日など) は、数字のみで修飾されます (助数詞なし)。

フス 三つ ブー 年 fus boux three year 「3年間」

ハウス 二 ファン 日 hlaus hwan two day 「2日間」

バ 五 ニャエン 月 ba nyaen five month "5月"

「nyaen」という単語が月の名前を指す場合（上記のMayのように）、数は助数詞なしで「nyaen」を修飾できます。しかし、「nyaen」という単語が月の数を指す場合（下記のように）、助数詞が必要です。

バ

五

ホーム

CL

ニャエン

月

ba hom nyaen

five CL month

「5ヶ月」

2. 名詞は副詞で修飾することはできません。また、中国語のように名詞を二重に重ねて「すべての」の意味を表すこともできません（例：** uxaeu uxaeu（「男 男」）、** blongs blongs（「家 家」））。「すべての」の意味を表すには、「ranx」に適切な助数詞を添えて、以下のように表現します。

ランクス 毎 ズエン CL ウサエウ 男性/1人 ranx zuen uxaeu every CL man/one "みんな"

ランクス 毎 ホーム CL ブロンズ 家 ranx hom blongs every CL house 「すべての家」

3. ライ語には性変化はありませんが、性別を表す 接頭辞が2つあります。「bais」は女性、「pas」は男性です。例：

pasdza、「父」

baisdza、「母」

paskai、「雄鶏」（kai : 鶏）

バイスカイ、「ヘン」

pasdzuengsgong、「セールスマン」（dzuengs : 販売、gong : 物）

baisdzuengsgong、「販売員」

「bais」という単語が単独で存在する場合、その意味は「母」です。「pas」は「父」を意味します。「Pas」は助詞としても用いられます。例：

くん

プレイリスト

ヒュークムエン

若い男性

ハウクス

それらの

ズー

1つ

パス

CL

緩い

食べる

ズー

1つ

ほら。

CL

Kun hluuekmuuen hauux zuu pas lax zuu hom.

PL {young man} those one CL eat one CL

「若者たちはそれぞれ１個ずつ食べました。」

4. ライ語では、英語のように名詞の複数形を表す 接尾辞や接頭辞は使用しません。しかし、ライ語では名詞の複数形を表すために「kun」という単語を使用します。例：

くん

プレイリスト

アエウザ

老人

rien

言う/話す/話す

タン

言葉

raeu

笑う

ドゥース

で

ファウ

下

カイ。

木

Kun aeudza rien tun raeu dhuus fou cai.

PL {old man} say/talk/speak word laugh in under tree

「老人たちは木の下で冗談を言っていた。」

「くん」という単語は、数詞と助数詞と一緒に使われて名詞を修飾することもできます。例：

くん

プレイリスト

ハウス

二

ズエン

CL

カウス

姉

フーエク

織り

リアン

スカート

賛美歌。

装飾模様

Kun hlaus zuen kauus fuuek riens paens.

PL two CL {older sister} weave skirt {decorative pattern}

「二人の姉は装飾模様のスカートを織っていました。」

5. 名詞は主語、述語、目的語になることができます。例：

カイ

木

主題

トゥエン

のうち

 

ceeng

花

物体

cai tuuen ceeng

tree {out of} flower

subject {} object

「木々が咲く（花が咲く）」

ヴィーングス

シャツ/トップス

主題

ハウクス

それ

 

ヴィーンズ

シャツ/トップス

述語

めう。

あなた。SG

 

Veengs hauux veengs meuu.

shirt/top that shirt/top you.SG

subject {} predicate {}

「そのシャツ/トップスはあなたのものです。」

6. 名詞は属性になることができ、また属性によって修飾されることもできる。例：

めう

あなた

クワイス

欲しい

オジエップ

学ぶ

カキアス

スクリプト

ライ

李

だ？

質問

Meuu kweis ojiep caqias Hlai da?

you want learn script Li Q

「Hlai文字を学びたいですか？」

7. 名詞は副詞修飾語になることもできる。例：

トン

トング

ニークス

これ

カイ

木

ヴエク。

する/作る

Tong neix cai vuek.

tong this tree/wood do/make

「この水ギセルは木でできています。」（トング＝水ギセルのような喫煙器具）

8. 時間に関する名詞は、動詞を修飾する副詞修飾語になることもあります。例：

ファンネイクス

今日

ファウス

熱い

ダット

とても

見よ！

アクセント

Hwanneix fous dhat lo!

today hot very ACCENT

「今日は暑いですね！」

ナ

彼/彼女

ううにゅう

明後日

平

行く

ゾク

〜へ

ダス。

母の母

Na uunyeuu hei zok das.

he/she {day after tomorrow} go to/toward {mother's mother}

「彼は明後日おばあちゃんの家に行きます。」

ファ

私たちは

ウーパンス

昨日

beuuluueng。

戻ってくる

Fa uupans beuuluueng.

we yesterday {come back}

「昨日帰ってきました。」

9. 名詞の前に「guu」という単語が従属関係を示すために置かれた場合、この組み合わせは所有 格として機能し、文の述語にのみ使用できます。例：

ヴァブヘニー

飛行機

ニークス

これ

ぐう

ポス

ドンゴク。

中国

Vabheny neix guu Dongxgok.

airplane this POSS China

「この飛行機は中国のものです。」

フラウス

二

ラン

CL

デュイス

水牛

ニークス

これ

ぐう

ポス

ラウファス。

フーさん

Hlaus lang duis neix guu Laufus.

two CL {water buffalo} this POSS {Mr. Fu}

「この二頭の水牛は傅さんのものです。」

動詞

^{[10] [11]}

動作動詞

• 【vuek，做】: する、作る…（よく使われる）
• 【怠惰、吃】：（１）食べたり、飲んだり、吸ったりする；（２）飲み込む（頻繁に使われる）
• 【duuengx，给】: 与える
• 【taeix、打】: 打つ、打つ
• 【bleuu，听】: (1) 聞く; (2) 感じる
• 【dzok，偷】: 盗むこと
• 【ゾン、坐】: 座ること
• 【叫ぶ、 叫ぶ 、 请する 、 派】: 誰かに何かをするように言う; 招待する...
• 【フェイ、走る】: (1) v.: 歩くこと。 (2) 名: 火災
• 【cuuek，休息】: 休むこと
• 【tuas，欺骗】: だますこと
• 【liengs，看守】: 見守る、守る
• その他

連結動詞

• 【男，是】：am、is、are（be動詞、文中では省略されることもある）
• 【ghwaix，不是】: 違います、違います、違います

精神活動を表す動詞

• 【dhas，怕】: 恐れる、恐れる
• 【ngop，想念】: もう一度会いたい、懐かしい
• 【oep，爱 】: 愛する、好き
• 【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: 混乱する、無秩序（動詞として使用）
• 【luuemx，忘记】: 忘れること
• 【うえん、埋怨】: 不平を言うこと
• 【tuuenngaen，生气】: 怒る（類義語：kis、kisngaen）
• 【dhaix、忍受】: 耐える、耐える
• その他

存在、変化、発展を表す動詞

• 【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: 存在する; (2) prep.: in, on, at
• 【zaux，有】: 持っている、ある
• 【hlaeux、死】: (1) v.: 死ぬこと。 (2) 名：死亡
• 【hlou，生】: (1) 動詞: 出産する; (2) 形容詞: 生きている、生きている
• 【長い、长大きい】: (1) 動詞: 成長する; (2) 形容詞: 大きい、大きい
• 【dzauux，变】: 変えること
• その他

助動詞

• 【gieu，能】: 得意である、できる、できる
• 【gax，不能】: できない、できない
• 【kweis，愿意】: 喜んですること
• 【ais，不愿】: したくないこと
• 【dheeng - hwoek、同意、愿意】: 同意する、喜んで同意する
• 【kueng，会】: 方法を知っている、できる
• 【boei，不会 】: やり方がわからない、できない
• 【loepp、可以、能够】: 許可される、できる
• 【guulax、必须、应该】: しなければならない、しなければならない
• 【kiemx，必须，应该】: しなければならない、しなければならない（外来語です）
• 【komx，必须，应该】: しなければならない、しなければならない（外来語です）
• 【auux、敢えて】: あえてすること
• その他

移動の動詞

• 【ぶうえん、来】: 来る
• 【へい、去】: 行く
• 【beuu，回】: 戻る、戻る
• 【luueng、返す】: 戻る
• 【dhuas，过】: 通り抜ける
• 【かえん、上】: 上に行く
• 【luei，下】: 下に行く
• 【hluet，进】: に入る
• 【tuuen，出】: (1) 動詞: 出かける、去る、退出する; (2) 動詞: から
• 【dhaens，到】: 到着する

動詞の基本ルール

^{[12] [11]}

時制/相

ライ語では、動詞の形は変化しません。動詞の前後に副詞や助動詞を置くことで、動詞の時制が決まります。

進歩的な側面

副詞「faets」または「fietla」は進行中の動作を表すことができ、動詞の前に置かれます。例：

ナ

彼/彼女

フェイツ

アドバンスド・プログラム

緩い

食べる

税。

米

Na faets lax tax.

he/she ADV.PROG eat rice

「彼は食べています。」 (中国語:他正在吃饭)

ダティ

鳥

フェイツ

アドバンスド・プログラム

ベニー。

飛ぶ

Daty faets bheny.

bird ADV.PROG fly

「鳥が飛んでいます。」 (中国語:鸟正在飞)

フルーク

子供

な

彼/彼女

フィエトラ

アドバンスド・プログラム

ライクス

鋤

ダックス。

分野

Hluuek na fietla laix dax.

child he/she ADV.PROG plough field

「彼の子供たちは/子供が畑を耕しています/耕しています。」 (中国語:他的孩子正在犁田)

完璧なアスペクト

「 bhaeis 」という単語を含む動詞は、すでに起こった動作を表します。「bhaeis」が動詞の前に置かれる場合、それは副詞句となります。例：

フルーク

子供

な

彼/彼女

バース

ADV . PERF

平

行く

アン

分野

彼。

アクセント

Hluuek na bhaeis hei ang he.

child he/she ADV.PERF go field ACCENT

「彼の子供たちはすでに畑へ行きました。」 (中国語:他的孩子已经去山栏地了)

パシュラウス

兄

な

彼/彼女

バース

ADV . PERF

青い

聞く

ファン

それから

rien、

言う

「アイス、

アクセント

ヒュームスグウェウ

分からない

な

彼/彼女

ぐぅ。

フューチャー

ロムス

まだ/再び

カス

または

だ？

ない

Pashlaus na bhaeis bleuu fan rien, "Eis, hluumsghweuu na guu. loms cas da?"

{older brother} he/she ADV.PERF hear then say ACCENT {don't know} he/she FUT still/again or not

「彼の兄はそれを聞いて、「ああ、彼がまだそんなことをするのか（それとも）しないのか分からない？」と言いました。」

「bhaeis」という単語が動詞の後に置かれると、それは補語として機能し、「終わった」という意味になります。例：

ホウ

私

緩い

食べる

税

米

バース

終了した

ゴム

それから

ヘイ。

行く

Hou lax tax bhaeis goms hei.

I eat rice finished then go

「夕食が終わったら行きます。」 (中国語:我吃完饭就去)

「dhuas」という単語は完了形を表すこともできます（「（1）動詞：通り抜ける；（2）動作がすでに起こったことを示す助動詞で、動詞の後に置かれる；（3）比較を表す助動詞で、形容詞の後に置かれる」）。例：

めう

あなた

レイス

見る

ズー

1つ

ズエン

CL

aeu

人

ニークス

これ

ドゥア

パフォーマンス

カス

または

だ？

ない

Meuu laeis zuu zuen aeu neix dhuas cas da?

you see one CL person/people this PERF or not

「この男を見たことがありますか？」 (中国語:你见过这个人吗? )

デシュ

私

ダ

ない

rien

言う/話す

ドンネイクス

このような

dhuas。

パフォーマンス

Dhes da rien dhongneix dhuas.

I not say/speak {like this} PERF

「そんなこと何も言ってないよ。」 (中国語:我有说过没这样的话)

将来の展望

助動詞「kweis」または「guu」は、動詞の前に置かれることで、動作が未来であることを示します。例：

ナ

彼/彼女

クワイス

フューチャー

平

行く

ダムザックス。

三亜市

Na kweis hei Damxax.

he/she FUT go {Sanya city}

「彼は三亜に行くつもりです。」 (中国語:他要去三亚)

めう

あなた

クワイス

フューチャー

ヴエク

する/作る

メッシュ？

何

Meuu kweis vuek meshes?

you FUT do/make what

"あなたは何をしますか？" (中国語:你要干什么? )

「 kweis」と「guu 」という2つの単語のニュアンスは、2つの動詞が一緒に使用される場合、最初の動詞が2番目の動詞の方法である場合、または2番目の動詞が最初の動詞の目的である場合、「guu」という単語のみが2番目の動詞の前に置かれるということです。例：

ボーク

運ぶ

ノミネート

水

ぐう

目的のために

ロンクス

料理する

税。

米

Bhoek noms guu roengx tax.

carry water {for the purpose of} cook rice

「料理に使う水を持ってきてください」（中国語：打水煮饭）

その他

動作が短時間しか続かない場合は、副詞「zuufanx」が動詞の後に置かれます。例：

ゴー

横になる

zuufanx。

しばらく

Gaux zuufanx.

{lie down} {a short while}

「少しの間、横になってください。」 (中国語:躺一会儿)

ドゥエングス

許可する

侯

私

猫

着る

zuufanx。

しばらく

Duuengx hou cat zuufanx.

{to let/to allow} I wear {a short while}

「しばらく着させてください。」 (中国語:给我穿一下子)

述語としての動詞

Hlai動詞には、動作動詞、精神活動を表す動詞、存在・変化・発展を表す動詞などがあり、文中で述語または述語主語となることができます。これらの動詞のほとんどは、目的語または補語に続くことができ、副詞句、時を表す名詞、助動詞によって修飾されることもあります。例：

デシュ

私

ナエウス

ただ

ブエン。

来る

Dhes naeus buuen.

I just come

「ちょうどここに来たところです。」 (中国語:我刚来)

ミュウ

猫

ゲイニーズ

噛む

diu。

ねずみ

Mieu gaenys diu.

cat bite mouse

「猫がネズミを噛みます。」 (中国語:猫咬老鼠)

パスザ

父親

ドゥース

存在する

ブロンズ。

家

Pasdza dhuus blongs.

father {exist in} house

「お父さんは家にいます。」 (中国語:父亲在家)

めう

あなた

ウーハウ

明日

クワイス

フューチャー

平

行く

だ？

ない

Meuu uuhaux kweis hei da?

you tomorrow FUT go not

「明日行きますか（行かないか）？」 (中国語:你明去天吗? )

名詞動詞

連結動詞を除くHlai動詞は、通常、接頭辞「uu- 」を付加することで名詞化できます。名詞動詞は主語にはなれますが、述語の主要な部分になることはできません。例：

ウーライクス​

NMLZ -プラウ

ハウクス

それ

ダックス

分野

ほう。

私の

Uu-laix hauux dax hou.

NMLZ-plow that field my

「耕した畑は私のものです。」 (中国語:那犁过的是我的田)

ウー・ブエン

NMLZ -来る

ハウクス

それ

グエン

弟または妹

デース。

私の

Uu-buuen hauux ghueng dhes.

NMLZ-come that {young brother or sister} my

「来ているのは私の兄/妹です。」 (中国語:那个来的是我的弟（妹妹） )

名詞動詞は、目的語が後に続く動詞として機能することができます。名詞動詞と目的語は、主語、目的語、または名詞述語として機能することができます。例：

デュイス

バッファロー

ニークス

これ

男

は

uu -duuengx

NMLZ -与える

hlausghueng。

親族

Duis neix man uu-duuengx hlausghueng.

buffalo this is NMLZ-give relatives

「水牛は親戚に（贈る）ためのものです。」 (中国語:这牛是给亲的)

うーぷ​

NMLZ -愛

侯

自分

男

は

ダンジス

同志

ほう。

私の

Uu-oep hou man dhangjis hou.

NMLZ-love me is comrade my

「私を愛しているのは私の同志です。」 (中国語:爱我的是我的同志)

倍増

中国語のように、辣語の動詞が二重になることは稀です。二重になるのは、単音節の動作動詞と精神活動を表す動詞のみです。単音節の動詞が二重になることは、動作が何気なく、不注意に行われたことを意味します。例：

ナ

彼/彼女

青い

聞く

青い

聞く

ファン

それから

べう。

戻る

Na bleuu bleuu fan beuu.

he/she hear hear then {go back}

「彼はそれについて（だけ）聞いて、戻ってきました。」 (中国語:他听了听就回去了)

くん

プレイリスト

フルークエン

若い女の子

ズエイス

見て

ズエイス

見て

ファン

それから

フェイ

歩く

フルート

入る

ブロンズ。

家

Kun hluuekueng dzueis dzueis fan fei hluet blongs.

PL {young girl} look look then walk {go into} house

「女の子たちはちょっとだけ見てから家に入っていきました。」 (中国語:姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了)

「 laeis 」が続く動詞は「試みる」という意味になります。動詞の後に目的語が続く場合は、「laeis」は目的語の後に置かれます。例：

ホウ

私

キム

味

ラエイス。

試す

Hou qim laeis.

I taste try

「それを（味わって）みます。」 (中国語:我尝尝看)

めう

あなた（s.）

ズエイス

見て

ダン

顔

な

彼/彼女

ラエイス。

試す

Meuu dzueis dhang na laeis.

{You (s.)} look face he/she try

「あなたは彼の顔を見てみます。」 (中国語:你看看他的脸)

助動詞

助動詞は通常、文の述語となる動詞の前に置かれ、1) 動作を行う者の能力、または 2) 動作の可能性、義務、または必要性を表します。例:

デシュ

私

クエン

知っている

rien

言う/話す

タン

言葉

萌えぇ。

漢語/中国語

Dhes kueng rien tun Moei.

I {know how} say/speak word Han/Chinese

「私は中国語を話せます。」 (中国語:我会讲汉语)

めう

あなた

キエムクス

すべき/しなければならない

平

行く

オタク

探す

銃。

薪

Meuu kiemx hei geek guns.

You should/must go {look for} firewood

「薪を探したほうがいいよ。」 (中国語:你应该去砍柴)

めう

あなた

グーラックス

すべき/しなければならない

ドンネイクス

このような

ヴエク

する

ナウス

ただ

dhiu。

右

Meuu guulax dhongneix vuek naus dhiu.

you should/must {like this} do just right

「正しく行うには、このようにしなければなりません。」 (中国語:你必须这样做才对)

ナ

彼/彼女

ガックス

できない

ヴエク

する

ゴング

仕事

ニークス。

これ

Na gax vuek gong neix.

he/she {be not able} do work this

「彼はこの仕事をすることができません。」 (中国語:他無法做这个工作)

助動詞は名詞目的語を後に続けることはできず、また、助動詞を二重にすることもできない。ただし、肯定と否定の助動詞は疑問文で「はい」か「いいえ」を尋ねるために使用される。例：

めう

あなた

クエン

知っている

ダ

ない

クエン？

知っている

Meuu kueng da kueng?

You {know how} not {know how}

「やり方を知っていますか（知りませんか）」（中国語：你会不会？）

質問に答える場合にのみ、助動詞は述語として単独で作用する。ただし、助動詞「kiemx」、「guulax」、および単語「guu」は述語として作用しない。例：

めう

あなた

ジュウ

できる

rien

言う/話す

タン

言葉

ライ

李

カス

または

だ？

ない？

デシュ

私

gieu。

できる

Meuu gieu rien tun Hlai cas da? Dhes gieu.

You {be able to} say/speak word Li or not? I {be able to}

「ライ語/リー語を話せますか? 話せます。」 (中国語:你能说黎语吗?我能)

助動詞には目的語が続くこともあります。例：

ナ

彼

バース

すでに

o

学ぶ（外来語）

クエン

知っている

キアス

スクリプト

ライ

李

彼。

アクセント

Na bhaeis o kueng qias Hlai he.

he already {learn (loan word)} {know how} script Li ACCENT

「彼はすでにライ/リーの脚本を学習しました。」 (中国語:已他经学会黎文了)

助動詞「kweis 」の反意語は「ais 」です。「 kueng 」の反意語は「hluums」です。また、「gieu」の反意語は「gax 」ですが、これらは命令形では使用できません。

移動の動詞

移動の動詞は単独で述語として作用することもある。例：

ウエンクトゥエングス

みんな

ブエン

来る

解像度！

アクセント

Uengxtoengs buuen res!

everyone come ACCENT

「みんな、来てね！」 (中国語:大家来吧！ )

また、動作の方向を表す動詞は主動詞の後に続き、述語を形成する。例：

デシュ

私

フェイ

歩く

フルート

入る

ブロンズ。

家

Dhes fei hluet blongs.

I walk {go into} house

「私は家に入った。」 (中国語:我走进屋里)

ナ

彼/彼女

トゥエン

から

ブロンズ

家

グー

走る

トゥエン

外出

ブエン。

来る

Na tuuen blongs ghoux tuuen buuen.

he/she from house run {go out} come

「彼は家から逃げ出した。」 (中国語:他从屋里跑出来)

ズーファンクス

しばらく

ブレイ

泳ぐ

平、

行く、

ズーファンクス

しばらく

ブレイ

泳ぐ

luueng。

戻る

Zuufanx blei hei, zuufanx blei luueng.

{a short while} swim {go to}, {a short while} swim {go back}

「前後に泳いでください。」 (中国語:一会儿游去、一会儿游回)

また、以下の表に示すように、 移動の動詞は組み合わさって複合語になることもあります。

	ブウエン（来、来る）	へい（去、行く）	beuu (回、戻る)
luueng (戻る、戻る)	ブエンルエン、回来	ヘイルエン、回帰	ビュールエン、回帰
dhuas (过、渡す)	ブエンファス、过来	ハイドワ、过去	beuudhuas、回去、过去
上（かえん）	ブーエンカエン、上来	へいかえん、上去	ベウカエン，回去，上去
luei (下, down)	ブエンルエイ、下来	ヘイルエイ、下去	ベウルエイ、回去、下去
hluet (进、に)	ブエンフルエット、进来	ヘイルエット、进去	beuuhluet、回去、去去
トゥエン（出、外）	ブエントゥエン、出来	ヘイトゥエン、出去	ビュートゥエン、回去、出去
beuu (回、戻る)	ブエンベウ、回来	へいべう、回去

上記の複合語の後には目的語が続くことがあります。例:

ホウ

私

ファンネイクス

今日

バース

すでに

デュエングス

運ぶ/持ってくる

平家園

上がる

どうだろう。

山

Hou hwanneix bhaeis duengx heikaen hwous.

I today already carry/bring {go up} mountain

「今日はもう山に持ってきました。」 (中国語:我今天已经送到山上去)

パスザ

父親

グイス

主導する/指示する

な

彼/彼女

ヘイルエット

入る

あなた

山

hloek。

深い

Pasdza ghuis na heihluet hwous hloek.

Father lead/direct he/she {go into} mountain deep

「父は彼を人里離れた山中に連れて行きました。」 (中国語:父亲带他进入深山)

パスバングラウクス

男性の名前

ファン

それから

ベルーレン

戻ってくる

ブロンズ。

家

Pasbhanghlauux fan beuuluueng blongs.

{name of a man} then {come back} home

「その後、パスバンフローは家に帰りました。」 (中国語: Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去)

「 luueng 」を除き、表の最初の列にある単語（「dhuas」「kaen 」「 luei」「hluet」「tuuen」「beuu」）と最上段にある単語（「buuen」「hei」「beuu 」 ）は、位置を入れ替えることができます。位置を入れ替えた後の複合語は、目的語を後に付けることはできず、通常は命令法で使用されます。

連結動詞

連結動詞は名詞、名詞句、代名詞の前に置かれ、2つの文法部分を述語として結合し、目的語に関する情報を提供します。例:

ホウ

私

男

午前

ヘイ、

李、

グワイクス

ない

萌えぇ。

漢語/中国語

Hou man Hlai, ghwaix Moei.

I am Li, {am not} Han/Chinese

「私は漢人ではなく李人です。」 (中国語:我是黎族，不是汉族)

ナ

彼

男

は

パシュラウス

兄

ほう。

私の

Na man pashlaus hou.

He is {older brother} my

「彼は私の兄です。」 (中国語:他是我的哥哥)

連結動詞は省略できる。例：

ナ

彼

パスグエン

弟

ほう。

私の

Na pasghueng hou.

He {younger brother} my

「彼は私の弟です。」 (中国語:他是我的弟)

しかし、主語や述語が長すぎる場合、または述語に数字が含まれている場合は、連結動詞を省略することはできません。例：

ガ

私たちは

ウエンクトゥエングス

みんな

bhaeisbhaeis

全て

ルース

全て

男

は

ウサエウ

人々

ドンゴク。

中国

Gha uengxtoengs bhaeisbhaeis ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.

We everyone all all are people China

「私たちは全員中国人です。」 (中国語:咱们大家都是中国人)

連結動詞は、時制を示す単語（「faets」や「bhaeis」や「dhuas」など）と一緒に使用することはできず、方向を示す動詞や補語と一緒に使用することも、副詞句で修飾したり、重複したりすることもできません。

相互動詞

いくつかの動詞に接尾辞「toengs」が付くと、複合語は相互動詞となり、目的語が後に続くことはできなくなります。例：

デュイス

水牛

tut'toengs。

衝突する

Duis tut'toengs.

{Water buffalo} {collide with each other}

「水牛同士が衝突した。」 (中国語:牛互相碰撞)

ナ

彼/彼女

ハウス

二

ズエン

CL

オプトエングス

お互いを愛し合う

だ。

本当に

Na hlaus zuen oeptoengs dhat.

He/she two CL {love each other} truly

「二人はお互いをとても愛しています。」 (中国語:他们两人很相爱)

名詞と動詞

ライ語の一部の単語は名詞でもあり動詞でもあります。例:

	名詞	動詞
楽しい	楽しい 雨 長さ 大きい fun long rain big 「大雨」（中国語：大雨）	楽しい 雨、 べっ！ アクセント fun bhe! rain, ACCENT 「雨が降っているよ！」 (中国語:下雨了！ )
コエム	コエム フルーツ カイ 木 coem cai fruit tree 「果物」（中国語：果子）	カイ 木 コエム 実を結ぶ cai coem tree {bear fruit} 「その木は実を結びます。」 (中国語:树结果)
ズーエム	ズーエム 卵 カイ チキン dzuuem kai egg chicken 「鶏卵」（中国語：鸡蛋）	カイ チキン ズーエム 卵を産む kai dzuuem chicken {lay egg} 「ニワトリが卵を産んでいます。」 (中国語:鸡下蛋)
ヘイス	ヘイス 排泄物 デュイス 水牛 haeis duis excrement {water buffalo} 「水牛の排泄物」（中国語：牛屎）	デュイス 水牛 ヘイス 排泄物 duis haeis {water buffalo} excrement 「水牛が排便している」（中国語：牛拉屎）

中国語と英語では、「着ける」という動詞は、ネックレスをつける、帽子をかぶる、イヤリングをつけるなど、様々な動作に当てはまります。しかし、ライ語では、これらの動作はそれぞれ異なる動詞で区別されます。例えば、

• 「着る」
  • kienx（ネックレスをつけるため）
  • mieng（イヤリングを着用する）
  • ngwaus（帽子をかぶる）
  • pien（スカート、ズボン、靴を履く）
  • 猫（トップス、シャツを着る場合）
• "ノイズ"
  • roeng（昆虫または鳥から）
  • vuns（犬から）
  • ひょうえん（鶏から）
  • ngwaety（人間から）

形容詞

^{[13] [14]}

人や物の特徴を説明する

• 【hleny，好】: good
• 【臭い、坏】: 悪い、良くない
• 【カイクス，冷】: 寒い
• 【fous /ファウス，热】：熱い
• 【dza，老】: 古い
• 【ブルーク、年轻】: 若い
• 【hlek，深】: 深い
• 【tuuens、浅】: 浅い
• その他

物の形や属性を説明する

• 【長い、大きい】: 大きい、大きい
• 【enyx，小】: 小さい
• 【peek，高い】: 高い、高い
• 【 たうす、矮】: 短い
• 【ダエウス、长】: 長い
• 【たて、短 】: 短い
• その他

行動や感情の状態を説明する

• 【ずうん，快】: 早い
• 【dais，慢】: 遅い
• 【hluengs，松】: 緩い
• 【ぐん、紧】: きつい
• 【hlenyfaty，快乐】: 幸せです
• 【へん、容易 】: 簡単
• その他

形容詞の基本ルール

^{[15] [9] [14]}

形容詞の使用

ライ語では、形容詞は主語にも目的語にもなれませんが、述語、属性、副詞、補語として機能することができます。

述語として

形容詞は主語の後に来ます。例：

ズー

1つ

ホーム

CL

コエム

フルーツ

ハウクス

それ

長さ

大きい/大きい

バイシアス。

とても

Zuu hom coem hauux long baisias.

One CL fruit that big/large {very much}

「その果物は大きいです！」 (中国語:那一个果子很大)

ズー

1つ

ズエン

CL

aeu

男性/人

最大

そこには

悪臭がする。

悪い

Zuu zuen aeu max reek.

One CL man/person there bad

「あの人は悪い/悪名高いです。」 (中国語:那一个人坏)

属性として

形容詞は修飾される名詞の後に置かれます。例：

dhop

布

キウ

青/緑

dhop kieu

cloth blue/green

「青い布」（中国語：蓝布）

楽しい

雨

長さ

大きい

fun long

rain big

「大雨」（中国語：大雨）

副詞として

形容詞は動詞の前に置かれます。例：

めう

あなた

演壇

遅い

演壇

遅い

緩い

食べる

として。

アクセント

Meuu dais dais lax as.

You slow slow eat ACCENT

「（あなたは）ゆっくり食べてください。」 (中国語:你ゆっくり地吃吧！ )

ナ

彼/彼女

カウスパイス

行動が速い

フェイ。

歩く

Na kauuspaeis fei.

He/she {swift in action} walk

「彼は足早に歩きました。」 (中国語:迅速他地走)

補足として

形容詞は通常、文中で動詞の後に来ます。例：

ナ

彼/彼女

ヴエク

する/作る

悪臭

悪い

彼。

アクセント

Na vuek reek he.

He/she do/make bad ACCENT

「彼は（それを）壊してしまった。」 (中国語:他弄坏了)

めう

あなた

バース

すでに

ライクス

鋤

ヘレニー

良い

ヒョス？

質問

Meuu bhaeis laix hleny hyos?

You already plow well Q

「もう耕しは終わりましたか？」 (中国語:你已经犁好了吗? )

副詞

形容詞は副詞によって修飾されることもあり、副詞は形容詞の前か後ろに置くことができます。例：

ダ

ない

ヘレニー

良い

da hleny

not good

「良くない」（中国語：不好）

ヴァウ

ほとんど

悪臭

悪い

vaeu reek

most bad

「最悪」 (中国語:最坏)

賛美歌

カラフル/花柄

ダットダット

本当に

paens dhatdhat

colorful/floral truly/really

「とてもカラフル」 (中国語:很花)

比較

ライ語では、形容詞には比較級と最上級があります。

比較学位

「dhuas」と「bhi」はどちらも比較級を表します。前者はHlai語、後者は外来語です。「dhuas」を使用する場合は、形容詞の後に配置し、形容詞と「dhuas」は比較対象となる2つの対象の間に置かれます。例：

バイスザ

母親

ピーク

高い

ドゥア

より多い

hluuekbaiskaux.

娘

Baisdza peek dhuas hluuekbaiskaux.

Mother tall {more than} daughter

「母親は娘より背が高いです。」 (中国語:母亲高过女儿)

外来語「bhi」が使用される場合、それは比較される2つのオブジェクトの間に置かれ、形容詞は後者のオブジェクトの後に置かれます。例：

めう

あなた

ビ

コンプ

デース

私

覗いてみる。

高い

Meuu bhi dhes peek.

You COMP I tall

「あなたは私（私）より背が高いです。」 (中国語:你比我高)

最上級

「vaeu」または「duix」はどちらも最上級を表します。前者はHlai語、後者は外来語です。「vaeu」または「duix」を使用する場合は、形容詞の前に置く必要があります。例：

パシュラウス

兄

ヴァウ

ほとんど

ジュウ。

有能

Pashlaus vaeu gieu.

{Older brother} most capable

「兄が一番有能だよ。」 (中国語:哥哥最能干)

ベイスカティ

末娘

デュイックス

ほとんど

hlenymuuen。

美しい

Baiscuty duix hlenymuuen.

{Youngest daughter} most beautiful

「末娘が一番美しい。」 (中国語:幺妹最漂亮)

私のHlai語コンサルタントであるLiu氏によると、「 veauという言葉は、軽蔑的、誇張的、または大げさな表現を意味する可能性があります。」文脈によって異なります。

その他

「Zuugit」は比較級や最上級を表すのではなく、「（ほんの少し）」を表します。例:

ズー

1つ

クエングス

CL

カイ

木

ニークス

これ

ピーク

高い

ズーギット。

若干

Zuu kuuengx cai neix peek zuugit.

One CL tree this tall {a little bit}

この３人はちょっと背が高いですね。 (中国語:这棵树高一点)

名詞形容詞

精神的・感情的な状態を表す形容詞を除き、形容詞は接頭辞「uu- 」を付加することで名詞化できます。名詞化された形容詞は述語にはなれませんが、主語、目的語、属性として作用します。例：

ウー・ヘレニー

良いもの

ニークス

これ

男

は

ぐう

ポス

めう。

あなた

Uu-hleny neix man guu meuu.

{The good one} this is POSS you

「この良いものはあなたのものです。」 (中国語:これ好的是你的)

ナ

彼/彼女

青

したい

デュー

取る

uu-daeus。

長い方

Na qieng dheuu uu-daeus.

He/she {want to} take {the long one}

「彼は長い勝負を望んでいる。」 (中国語:他拿长的)

カイ

チキン

ウーロン

大きなもの

ハウクス

それ

男

は

ぐう

ポス

デース。

自分

Kai uu-long hauux man guu dhes.

Chicken {the big one} that is POSS me

「あの大きな鶏は私のものです。」 (中国語:那只大的鸡是我的)

倍増

物の形や属性、あるいは動作や感情の状態を表す形容詞は重複することができますが、形容詞は単音節でなければなりません。形容詞が重複すると、形容詞の程度が増します。例：

ヴィーンズ

シャツ/トップス

カエウ

白

カエウ

白

veengs kaeu kaeu

shirt/top white white

「白服」（中国語：白白的衣服）

演壇

遅い

演壇

遅い

フェイ

歩く

dais dais fei

slow slow walk

「ゆっくり歩く」（中国語：ゆっくり歩く）

（Hlai族の人々が別れを告げる時、「dais dais fei」というフレーズがお互いに使われます。）

2つの異なる形容詞をAABBのように重ねて使うことができます。例：

ブロンズ

家

デース

私の

バーン

新しい

バーン

新しい

ヘレニー

良い

hleny。

良い

Blongs dhes baen baen hleny hleny.

House my new new good good

「私の家は新しくて良いです。」 (中国語:我的房子又新又好)

Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,

Guen

Road

neix

this

peek

high

tauus

short

peek

high

tauus.

short

Guen neix peek tauus peek tauus.

Road this high short high short

"This road is rough/bumpy." (Chinese: 这条路高高低低)

Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,

li-loek

INT-dark

li-loek

INT-dark

"pitch-dark" (Chinese: 黑漆漆)

gu-goeks

INT-concave

gu-goeks

INT-concave

"full of bumps and holes/uneven" (Chinese: 黑漆漆)

Duplicated suffix

Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,

kaeu-laepplaepp

white-something looks bright

kaeu-laepplaepp

{white-something looks bright}

"something is so white as to be bright" (Chinese: 亮晶晶)

tax

rice

fous-qiettqiett

hot-something looks hot

tax fous-qiettqiett

rice {hot-something looks hot}

"the hot rice" (Chinese: 饭热乎乎)

Small and large

The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,

"enyx" + noun	noun + "enyx"
enyx small hla fish enyx hla small fish "small fish" (Chinese: 小鱼)	hla fish enyx small hla enyx fish small "small fish" (Chinese: 小的鱼)
enyx small kai chicken enyx kai small chicken "chick" (Chinese: 小鸡)	kai chicken enyx small kai enyx chicken small "chick" (Chinese: 小的鸡)

The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,

"long" + noun	noun + "long"
long big duis water buffalo long duis big {water buffalo} "big buffalo" (Chinese: 大的水牛)	duis water buffalo long big duis long {water buffalo} big "big buffalo" (Chinese: 大水牛)
long big hwoet wind long hwoet big wind "big wind" (Chinese: 大的风)	hwoet wind long big hwoet long wind big "big wind" (Chinese: 大风)

Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,

bais-fun

big rain

bais-fun

{big rain}

"heavy rain" (Chinese: 大雨)

bais-kuuengxcai

big tree

bais-kuuengxcai

{big tree}

"big tree" (Chinese: 大树)

Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,

bais-qien

big stone

long

big

bais-qien long

{big stone} big

"large stone" (Chinese: 很大的石头)

If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.

Numbers

^[16][17]

Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.

Cardinal numbers

Basic numbers units

• 【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word "lax" also mean the digit—"one")
• 【hlaus，二】: two
• 【fus，三】: three
• 【caus，四】: four
• 【ba，五】: five
• 【dom，六】: six
• 【tou，七】: seven
• 【ghou，八】: eight
• 【fauus，九】: nine
• 【fuet，十】: ten
• 【ghwaen，百】: hundred
• 【nguen，千】: thousand
• 【vaens，万】: ten thousand

Basic numbers unit combinations

• 【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
• 【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
• 【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
• 【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
• 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
• 【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
• 【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand

With nouns

Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

zuu lang kai

one CLF chicken

"one chicken" (Chinese: 一只鸡)

hlaus

two

nguen

thousand

kuuengx

CLF

cai

tree

hlaus nguen kuuengx cai

two thousand CLF tree

"two thousand trees" (Chinese: 两千棵树)

However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.

Meuuda

you

doengs

live

dhuus

in

Bhakgengs

Beijing

zuu

one

boux

year

hei

pass

lo.

ACCENT

Meuuda doengs dhuus Bhakgengs zuu boux hei lo.

you live in Beijing one year pass ACCENT

"You have lived in Beijing for a year." (Chinese: 你们住在北京一年了)

Na

he

hlaus

two

hwan

day

da

not

kaen

go up

hwous

mountain

geek

search

guns

firewood

lo.

ACCENT

Na hlaus hwan da kaen hwous geek guns lo.

he two day not {go up} mountain search firewood ACCENT

"These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood." (Chinese: 他两天不上山砍柴了)

Doubling

Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,

Zaux

have

nguen

thousand

nguen

thousand

vaens

ten thousand

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

buuen.

come

Zaux nguen nguen vaens vaens aeu buuen.

have thousand thousand {ten thousand} {ten thousand} man come

"There are thousands of people coming." (Chinese: 有千千万万的人来)

Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,

Zaux

have

jieng

form

nguen

thousand

jieng

form

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

hei.

go

Zaux jieng nguen jieng vaens aeu hei.

have form thousand form {ten thousand} man go

"There are thousands of people going." (Chinese: 有成千成万的人去)

Zuu

one

nguen

thousand

zuu

one

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

ngan

all

qieng

desire

fas

sky

fun.

rain

Zuu nguen zuu vaens aeu ngan qieng fas fun.

one thousand one {ten thousand} man all desire sky rain

"Thousands of people look forward to the rain." (Chinese: 千千万万的人都盼望天下雨)

One

There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.

First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.

The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.

zuu

one

lang

CLF

duis

water buffalo

zuu lang duis

one CLF {water buffalo}

"one water buffalo" (Chinese: 一只水牛)

The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

zuu ghwaen

one hundred

"one hundred" (Chinese: 一百)

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

zuu nguen

one thousand

"one thousand" (Chinese: 一千)

The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

ceuus/zeuus

one

fuet

ten

zuu ghwaen ceuus/zeuus fuet

one hundred one ten

"one hundred and ten (110)" (Chinese: 一百一十)

zuu

one

vaens

ten hundred

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

ceuus/zeuus

one

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus

one

zuu vaens zuu nguen ceuus/zeuus fuet ceuus/zeuus

one {ten hundred} one thousand one ten one

"eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)" (Chinese: 一万一千零一十一)

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

uengx

and

ceuus/zeuus

one

zuu ghwaen uengx ceuus/zeuus

one hundred and one

"one hundred and one (101)" (Chinese: 一百零一)

However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

uengx

and

zuu

one

hom

CLF

zuu nguen uengx zuu hom

one thousand and one CLF

"one thousand and one (objects)" (Chinese: 一千零一个)

The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,

lax

one

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus

one

(=

(=

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus)

one)

lax fuet ceuus/zeuus (= fuet ceuus/zeuus)

one ten one (= ten one)

"eleven (11)" (Chinese: 一十一)

lax

one

nguen

thousand

dom

six

ghwaen

hundred

(=

(=

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

dom

six

ghwaen)

hundred)

lax nguen dom ghwaen (= zuu nguen dom ghwaen)

one thousand six hundred (= one thousand six hundred)

"one thousand six hundred (1600)" (Chinese: 一千六百)

Ten

There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.

First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.

"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.

hlaus

two

bun

ten

hom

CLF

gan

money

(=

(=

hlaus

two

bun

ten

gan)

money)

hlaus bun hom gan (= hlaus bun gan)

two ten CLF money (= two ten money)

"twenty dollars" (Chinese: 二十块钱)

fus

three

bun

ten

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

(=

(=

fus

three

bun

ten

kai)

chicken)

fus bun lang kai (= fus bun kai)

three ten CLF chicken (= three ten chicken)

"thirty chickens" (Chinese: 三十只鸡)

"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,

fuet

ten

lang

CLF

duis

water buffalo

fuet lang duis

ten CLF {water buffalo}

"ten water buffalo" (Chinese: 十只水牛)

However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,

ba

five

fuet

ten

boux

CLF/year

ba fuet boux

five ten CLF/year

"fifty years" (Chinese: 五十岁)

fus

three

fuet

ten

waeu

CLF/bowl

fus fuet waeu

three ten CLF/bowl

"thirty bowls" (Chinese: 三十岁)

Zero

In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

lengs

zero

ba

five

zuu ghwaen lengs ba

one hundred zero five

"one hundred and five (105)" (Chinese: 一百零五)

However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

uengx

and

hlaus

two

(hom)

(CLF)

zuu ghwaen uengx hlaus (hom)

one hundred and two (CLF)

"one hundred and two (102)" (Chinese: 一百零二（个）)

fus

three

nguen

thousand

loms

again

hlaus

two

fuet

ten

(hom)

(CLF)

fus nguen loms hlaus fuet (hom)

three thousand again two ten (CLF)

"three thousand and twenty (3020)" (Chinese: 三千零二十（个）)

Rules for large numbers

In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers:

(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,

fuet

ten

ceuus

one

(= fuet + ceuus)

 

fuet ceuus {(= fuet + ceuus)}

ten one {}

"eleven (11)" (Chinese: 十一)

fuet

ten

hlaus

two

(= fuet + hlaus)

 

fuet hlaus {(= fuet + hlaus)}

ten two {}

"twelve (12)" (Chinese: 十二)

(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,

fus

three

fuet

ten

(= fus × fuet)

 

fus fuet {(= fus × fuet)}

three ten {}

"thirty (30)" (Chinese: 三十)

hlaus

two

ghwaen

hundred

(= hlaus × ghwaen)

 

hlaus ghwaen {(= hlaus × ghwaen)}

two hundred {}

"two hundred (200)" (Chinese: 二百)

Ordinal numbers

In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.

hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child-head-to plant

hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

{child-head-to plant}

"the first born child" (usually, it means "son"; Chinese: 老大（长子）)

hluuek-tom

child-middle

hluuek-tom

child-middle

"the child(ren) in the middle" (Chinese: 老二，老三…)

hluuek-cuty

child-tail

hluuek-cuty

child-tail

"the youngest child" (Chinese: 老幺)

When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,

hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa

child-man-head-to plant

=

=

hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child-head-to plant

hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

{child-man-head-to plant} = {child-head-to plant}

"the first born son" (Chinese: 长子)

hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa

child-woman-head-to plant

=

=

hluuek-baiskaux-long

child-woman-big

hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-baiskaux-long

{child-woman-head-to plant} = child-woman-big

"the first born daughter" (Chinese: 大女儿)

Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).

Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,

pas-tom

M-middle

pas-tom

M-middle

"the son in the middle" (Chinese: 次子)

bais-cuty

F-tail

bais-cuty

F-tail

"the youngest daughter" (Chinese: 幺女)

When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,

ghwous

head

zuu

one

kuuengx

CL.tree

ghwous zuu kuuengx

head one CL.tree

"the first (tree)" (Chinese: 头一棵)

To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baiscuty

last/tail

zuu

one

hom

CL

baiscuty zuu hom

last/tail one CL

"the last (one)" (Chinese: 最后一个)

To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baistom

middle

zuu

one

lang

CL

baistom zuu lang

middle one CL

"the 2nd, or 3rd…" (Chinese: 第二，或第三…)

Counting with ordinal numbers

Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,

• 【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
• 【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
• 【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
• 【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
• 【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
• 【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
• 【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
• 【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
• 【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
• 【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth

dhoeis-bhoeix

eighth

dhuix

team

dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix

eighth team

"the eighth team" (Chinese: 第八队)

Counting the passage of years, months, days, or time

In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,

• year
  • 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
  • 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
  • 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
  • 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
  • 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
  • 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
  • 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
  • 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
  • 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
  • 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
  • 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
  • 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
• day
  • 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
  • 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
  • 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
  • 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
  • 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
  • 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
  • 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
  • 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
  • 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
  • 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
  • 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
  • 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig

For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,

1. 【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
2. 【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
3. 【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
4. 【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
5. 【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
6. 【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
7. 【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
8. 【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
9. 【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
10. 【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
11. 【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
12. 【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December

The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,

• 【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
• 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
• 【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
• 【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
• ..........
• 【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
• 【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
• ..........
• 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
• 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month

Number of Approximation

With sequential numbers

In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,

hlaus

two

fus

three

(hom)

(CL)

hlaus fus (hom)

two three (CL)

"two or three" (Chinese: 两三（个）)

tou

seven

ghou

eight

fauus

nine

(hom)

(CL)

tou ghou fauus (hom)

seven eight nine (CL)

"seven, eight, or nine" (Chinese: 七八九（个）)

Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.

With "probably"

Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,

dzaengsloepp

probably

zaux

have

fuet

ten

dom

six

hom

CL

dzaengsloepp zaux fuet dom hom

probably have ten six CL

"probably have sixteen (ones)" (Chinese: 大概有十六个)

The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,

loepp

probably

zaux

have

tou

seven

fuet

ten

ceuus

one

kuuengx

CL.tree

loepp zaux tou fuet ceuus kuuengx

probably have seven ten one CL.tree

"probably have seventy-one (trees)" (Chinese: 大约有七十一棵)

With "more than"

Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,

hlaus

two

dza

surplus

hom

CL

hlaus dza hom

two surplus CL

"more than two (less than three)" (Chinese: 两个多)

fuet

ten

dza

surplus

boux

year

fuet dza boux

ten surplus year

"more than ten years (less than twenty)" (Chinese: 十多年)

The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,

Na

he

loepp

probably

zaux

have

fuet

ten

dza

surplus

boux

year

da

not

buuen

come

he.

ACCENT

Na loepp zaux fuet dza boux da buuen he.

he probably have ten surplus year not come ACCENT

"He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years." (Chinese: 他大约有十余年没来了)

The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,

Zuu

one

hom

CL

as

watermelon

neix

this

loepp

probably

fuet

ten

dza

surplus

gins.

CL, about 500 g

Zuu hom as neix loepp fuet dza gins.

one CL watermelon this probably ten surplus {CL, about 500 g}

"This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins." (Chinese: 这个西瓜大约有十多斤)

Small amounts

There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,

Na

he

naus

just/only

lax

eat

zuugit

a little bit

vi!

ACCENT

Na naus lax zuugit vi!

he just/only eat {a little bit} ACCENT

"He only ate a little bit." (Chinese: 他才吃一点点)

Hou

I

zaux

have

zuugitgit.

a little bit

Hou zaux zuugitgit.

I have {a little bit}

"I have a little bit." (Chinese: 我有一点点)

bhinx

lack

zuugitlaei

a little bit

bhinx zuugitlaei

lack {a little bit}

"lacks a little bit." (Chinese: 缺了一点点)

The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,

zuutom

some

hei

go

zuutom

some

buuen

come

zuutom hei zuutom buuen

some go some come

"Some (people) go, some (people) come." (Chinese: 一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来)

paem

meet

na

he

dhuus

in

zuutom

part

guen

way

paem na dhuus zuutom guen

meet he in part way

"meet him part way" (Chinese: 在半路上碰见他)

Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half", e.g.,

zuu

one

pas

CL.man

zuutom

half

zuu pas zuutom

one CL.man half

"each one (gets) half" (Chinese: 一人一半)

Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,

gei

several

hwan

day

neix

this

gei hwan neix

several day this

"these days" (Chinese: 这几天)

Mansnyoengx

only

zaux

have

gei

several

zuen

CL

aeu

man

buuen.

come

Mansnyoengx zaux gei zuen aeu buuen.

only have several CL man come

"Only a few people come (less than ten)" (Chinese: 只有几个人来)

Large amounts

The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,

Bhous

village

na

he

hauux

that

hloei

many

duis

water buffalo

dhat.

very

Bhous na hauux hloei duis dhat.

village he that many {water buffalo} very

"There are a lot of buffalo in his village." (Chinese: 他那个村牛很多)

Dhuix

team

fa

we

neix

this

zaux

have

uxaeu

man

hloeihloei.

so many

Dhuix fa neix zaux uxaeu hloeihloei.

team we this have man {so many}

"We have so many people on this team." (Chinese: 我们这个队有许多人)

When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,

Meuu

you

boux

year

neix

this

hloeiras

how many

boux?

year

Meuu boux neix hloeiras boux?

you year this {how many} year

"How old are you this year?" (Chinese: 你今年多大岁数？)

Meuu

you

zaux

have

hloeiras

how many

zuen

CL

hluuekghueng?

younger sister or brother

Meuu zaux hloeiras zuen hluuekghueng?

you have {how many} CL {younger sister or brother}

"How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?" (Chinese: 你有多少个弟弟妹妹？)

Classifiers

^[18][19][20]

Classifiers that modify nouns

Common classifiers

• 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hom

  CL

  waeu

  bowl

  zuu hom waeu

  one CL bowl

  "a bowl" (Chinese: 一个碗)
• 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  zuen

  CL

  bhiengs

  soldier

  hlaus zuen bhiengs

  two CL soldier

  "two soldiers" (Chinese: 两个士兵)
• 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  laus

  CL

  hluuek

  child

  zuu laus hluuek

  one CL child

  "a boy" (Chinese: 一个男孩)
• 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  hauus

  CL

  hluuek

  child

  hlaus hauus hluuek

  two CL child

  "two girls" (Chinese: 两个女孩)
• 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,

  fus

  three

  lang

  CL

  kai

  chicken

  fus lang kai

  three CL chicken

  "three chickens" (Chinese: 三只鸡)
• 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,

  caus

  four

  kuuengx

  CL

  cai

  tree

  caus kuuengx cai

  four CL tree

  "four trees" (Chinese: 四棵树)
• 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,

  ba

  five

  fans

  CL

  veengs

  shirt/top

  ba fans veengs

  five CL shirt/top

  "five shirts or blouses" (Chinese: 五件衣裳)
• 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  hyax

  CL

  kous

  pants

  hlaus hyax kous

  two CL pants

  "two pairs of pants" (Chinese: 两条裤子)
• 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ruet

  CL

  riens

  the traditional Hlai skirt

  zuu ruet riens

  one CL {the traditional Hlai skirt}

  "a skirt" (Chinese: 一条筒裙)
• 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  tos

  CL

  veengs

  shirt/top

  kous

  pants

  zuu tos veengs kous

  one CL shirt/top pants

  "a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom" (Chinese: 一套衣服裤子)
• 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  tut

  CL

  veengs

  shirt/top

  zuu tut veengs

  one CL shirt/top

  "a suit of clothes" (Chinese: 一套衣服)
• 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  dhanx

  CL

  dhoei

  rope

  zuu dhanx dhoei

  one CL rope

  "a rope" (Chinese: 一根绳子)

  dom

  six

  dhanx

  CL

  noms

  river

  dom dhanx noms

  six CL river

  "six rivers" (Chinese: 六条河)
• 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,

  tou

  seven

  viens

  CL

  noeng

  skin

  duis

  water buffalo

  tou viens noeng duis

  seven CL skin {water buffalo}

  "seven pieces of cow hides" (Chinese: 七张牛皮)
• 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  rueis

  CL

  aek

  meat

  bou

  pig

  hlaus rueis aek bou

  two CL meat pig

  "two slabs of pork" (Chinese: 两块猪肉)

  fus

  three

  rueis

  CL

  noeng

  skin

  loei

  muntjak

  fus rueis noeng loei

  three CL skin muntjak

  "three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide" (Chinese: 三张麂子皮)
• 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  ban

  CL

  gas

  horse

  hlaus ban gas

  two CL horse

  "two horses" (Chinese: 两匹马)
• 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  pous

  CL

  van

  earth

  zuu pous van

  one CL earth

  "a pile of earth" (Chinese: 一堆土)
• 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，

  zuu

  one

  kun

  CL

  muens

  rice in the husk

  zuu kun muens

  one CL {rice in the husk}

  "a large pile of rice" (Chinese: 一大堆稻谷)
• 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  baep

  CL

  fan

  seedling

  zuu baep fan

  one CL seedling

  "a handful of rice seedlings" (Chinese: 一把秧)
• 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，

  zuu

  one

  hax

  classifier

  muens

  rice

  zuu hax muens

  one classifier rice

  "one handful of rice" (Chinese: 一把稻子)
• 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  bhaeng

  CL

  blongs

  house

  zuu bhaeng blongs

  one CL house

  "a building/house" (Chinese: 一间屋子)

  zuu

  one

  bhaeng

  CL

  qiafei

  train

  zuu bhaeng qiafei

  one CL train

  "a box car" (Chinese: 一节火车厢)
• 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  bhaengs

  CL

  veji

  bullet

  zuu bhaengs veji

  one CL bullet

  "a bullet" (Chinese: 一梭/颗子弹)

  zuu

  one

  bhaengs

  CL

  dienx

  letter

  zuu bhaengs dienx

  one CL letter

  "a letter" (Chinese: 一封信)
• 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  bhak

  CL

  gias

  glass

  zuu bhak gias

  one CL glass

  "a piece of glass" (Chinese: 一块玻璃)

  zuu

  one

  bhak

  CL

  qias

  paper

  zuu bhak qias

  one CL paper

  "a piece of cardboard" (Chinese: 一块硬纸片)
• 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  bheek

  CL

  ueix

  picture/painting

  zuu bheek ueix

  one CL picture/painting

  "a picture/painting" (Chinese: 一幅画)
• 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  bhueks

  CL

  ngwiengs

  straw

  zuu bhueks ngwiengs

  one CL straw

  "a handful of straw" (Chinese: 一把稻草)
• 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  bhui

  CL

  qias

  book

  hlaus bhui qias

  two CL book

  "two books" (Chinese: 两本书)
• 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  cax

  CL

  hwous

  mountain

  zuu cax hwous

  one CL mountain

  "a mountain" (Chinese: 一座山)
• 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ceuus

  CL

  bhit

  pen

  zuu ceuus bhit

  one CL pen

  "a pen" (Chinese: 一支笔)
• 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  cueng

  CL

  guty

  needle

  zuu cueng guty

  one CL needle

  "a needle" (Chinese: 一枚针)
• 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  dhien

  CL

  van

  land/earth

  bheuudaeis

  vegetables

  zuu dhien van bheuudaeis

  one CL land/earth vegetables

  "a bed of vegetables" (Chinese: 一畦菜地)

  zuu

  one

  dhien

  CL

  dhop

  cloth

  zuu dhien dhop

  one CL cloth

  "a piece of cloth" (Chinese: 一幅布)
• 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,

  bhous

  Village

  fa

  our

  zaux

  have

  hlaus

  two

  fuet

  ten

  dhun

  CL

  blongs.

  households

  bhous fa zaux hlaus fuet dhun blongs.

  Village our have two ten CL households

  "There are twenty households in our village." (Chinese: 我们村子有二十户人家)
• 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  gas

  CL

  qia

  car

  zuu gas qia

  one CL car

  "a car" (Chinese: 一辆车)

  zuu

  one

  gas

  CL

  vabheny

  airplane

  zuu gas vabheny

  one CL airplane

  "an airplane" (Chinese: 一架飞机)
• 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,

  fus

  three

  ghoeix

  CL

  cai

  tree

  fus ghoeix cai

  three CL tree

  "three rows of trees" (Chinese: 三行树)

  zuu

  one

  ghoeix

  CL

  qias

  word/letter

  zuu ghoeix qias

  one CL word/letter

  "one line of words" (Chinese: 一行字)
• 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.
• 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.
• 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hwoens

  CL

  guns

  firewood

  zuu hwoens guns

  one CL firewood

  "a pile of firewood" (Chinese: 一堆柴火)

  zuu

  one

  hwoens

  CL

  dax

  field

  zuu hwoens dax

  one CL field

  "a field" (Chinese: 一块水田)
• 【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,

  fus

  three

  hluut

  CL

  laeus

  the floor in building

  fus hluut laeus

  three CL {the floor in building}

  "three floors" (Chinese: 三层楼)

  Van

  Land

  neix

  this

  zaux

  have

  fus

  three

  hluut

  CL

  na.

  thickness

  Van neix zaux fus hluut na.

  Land this have three CL thickness

  "This soil has three layers." (Chinese: 这土有三层厚)
• 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ka

  CL

  cai

  tree

  zuu ka cai

  one CL tree

  "a branch" (Chinese: 一枝树枝)
• 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  kok

  CL

  dhety

  mushroom

  zuu kok dhety

  one CL mushroom

  "a mushroom" (Chinese: 一棵菌子)
• 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  kuen

  CL

  zuugoems

  shoe

  zuu kuen zuugoems

  one CL shoe

  "a shoe" (Chinese: 一只鞋)

  zuu

  one

  koen

  CL

  fiek

  CL

  zuu koen fiek

  one CL CL

  "a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back" (Chinese: 半挑东西)
  (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)
• 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  kou

  CL

  ghoeis

  net

  hla

  fish

  zuu kou ghoeis hla

  one CL net fish

  "a fishing net" (Chinese: 一张鱼网)
• 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  liemx

  CL

  coembhem

  grapefruit

  zuu liemx coembhem

  one CL grapefruit

  "a piece of grapefruit" (Chinese: 一瓣柚子)
• 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  leep

  CL

  qias

  paper

  hlaus leep qias

  two CL paper

  "two sheets of paper" (Chinese: 两层纸)
• 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects
• 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)
• 【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,

  neix

  This

  zuu

  one

  moux

  CL

  hleny

  good

  neix zuu moux hleny

  This one CL good

  "This is a good one." (Chinese: 这一种好)

  zaux

  have

  hlenyhloei

  many

  moux

  CL

  muens

  rice

  zaux hlenyhloei moux muens

  have many CL rice

  "There are many kinds of rice." (Chinese: 有好多种稻子)
• 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  paeng

  CL

  zuuloengs

  betel nut

  zuu paeng zuuloengs

  one CL {betel nut}

  "a cluster of betel nut" (Chinese: 一串槟榔)
• 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  pienx

  CL

  gas

  knife

  zuu pienx gas

  one CL knife

  "a knife" (Chinese: 一把刀)
• 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  puens

  CL

  cai

  tree

  zuu puens cai

  one CL tree

  "a stump (or tree trunk)" (Chinese: 一根树干)

  zuu

  one

  puens

  CL

  bhit

  pen

  zuu puens bhit

  one CL pen

  "a pen" (Chinese: 一支笔)
• 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  raeis

  CL

  dax

  field

  zuu raeis dax

  one CL field

  "a field" (Chinese: 一片田)
• 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ras

  CL

  gans

  grass

  zuu ras gans

  one CL grass

  "a blade of grass" (Chinese: 一棵草)
• 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  rok

  CL

  ang

  field

  zuu rok ang

  one CL field

  "a field" (Chinese: 一块刀耕地)

  (ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)

  fus

  three

  rok

  CL

  pos

  hillside field

  fus rok pos

  three CL {hillside field}

  "three fields on the hillside" (Chinese: 三块旱地)
• 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects
• 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,

  caty

  buy

  zuu

  one

  taeu

  CL

  liem

  sickle

  caty zuu taeu liem

  buy one CL sickle

  "buy a bundle of sickles" (Chinese: 买一批镰刀)

  zuu

  one

  taeu

  CL

  dzeeng

  goat/sheep

  zuu taeu dzeeng

  one CL goat/sheep

  "a flock of goats" (Chinese: 一群羊)
• 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  tuueng

  CL

  rik

  rake

  zuu tuueng rik

  one CL rake

  "a rake" (Chinese: 一把耙)
• 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  vaen

  CL

  hweek

  banana

  zuu vaen hweek

  one CL banana

  "a bunch of bananas" (Chinese: 一梳芭蕉)

  or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,

  ceek

  pestle

  fuet

  ten

  vaen

  CL

  ceek fuet vaen

  pestle ten CL

  "pestle ten times" (Chinese: 舂十下)
• 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  vans

  CL

  qia

  paper

  zuu vans qia

  one CL paper

  "a piece of paper" (Chinese: 一张纸)

  zuu

  one

  vans

  CL

  diets

  picture

  zuu vans diets

  one CL picture

  "a photograph" (Chinese: 一幅照片)
• 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  voei

  CL

  ghei

  rice

  zuu voei ghei

  one CL rice

  "a bucket of rice" (Chinese: 一桶米)
• 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  vong

  CL

  coemcai

  fruit

  zuu vong coemcai

  one CL fruit

  "a cluster of fruit" (Chinese: 一嘟噜果子)

Classifiers for measurement

• 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  mous

  CL

  dax

  field

  zuu mous dax

  one CL field

  "one mu of field" (Chinese: 一亩田)
• 【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.

  zuu

  one

  dho

  CL

  dhop

  cloth or textile

  zuu dho dhop

  one CL {cloth or textile}

  "one zhang of cloth" (Chinese: 一丈布)
• 【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35 centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.

  hlaus

  two

  qieux

  CL

  dhop

  cloth or textile

  hlaus qieux dhop

  two CL {cloth or textile}

  "two feet of cloth" (Chinese: 两尺布)
• 【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.

  fus

  three

  cuns

  CL

  dhop

  cloth or textile

  fus cuns dhop

  three CL {cloth or textile}

  "three inches of cloth" (Chinese: 三寸布)
• 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.
• 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hwuup

  CL

  daeus

  length

  zuu hwuup daeus

  one CL length

  "one zuo length" (Chinese: 一拃长)
• 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.
• 【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice). 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.
• 【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu dhaeu ghei (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice). 10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.
• 【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g., fus kax ghei (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice). 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.
• 【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu gins hla (zuu: one, hla: fish). 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.
• 【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt). 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g
• 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei, "a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."

Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs

• 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  kop

  CL

  ghei

  rice

  zuu kop ghei

  one CL rice

  "one scoop of rice" (Chinese: 一捧米)
• 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  koens

  CL

  hya

  thatch or couch grass

  zuu koens hya

  one CL {thatch or couch grass}

  "a sheaf of thatch" (Chinese: 一捆茅草)
• 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  bhiek

  CL

  guns

  firewood/sticks

  zuu bhiek guns

  one CL firewood/sticks

  "a bundle of firewood/sticks" (Chinese: 一捆柴)
• 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  zeems

  CL

  nyaeus

  salt

  zuu zeems nyaeus

  one CL salt

  "one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt." (Chinese: 一撮盐)
• 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

  jims

  pick up

  zuugit

  a little of

  nyaeus

  salt

  jims zuugit nyaeus

  {pick up} {a little of} salt

  "a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt" (Chinese: 拈一点盐)

  hlaus

  two

  jims

  CL

  nyaeus

  salt

  hlaus jims nyaeus

  two CL salt

  "two pinches of salt" (Chinese: 两撮盐)
• 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  fiek

  CL

  guns

  firewood

  zuu fiek guns

  one CL firewood

  "a bundle of firewood" (Chinese: 一担柴)

  zuu

  one

  fiek

  CL

  zuugoems

  shoe

  zuu fiek zuugoems

  one CL shoe

  "a pair of shoes" (Chinese: 一双鞋)
• 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  gok

  CL

  noms

  water

  zuu gok noms

  one CL water

  "a cup of water" (Chinese: 一杯水)

  zuu

  one

  gok

  CL

  ghweis

  oil

  zuu gok ghweis

  one CL oil

  "a bottle of oil" (Chinese: 一瓶油)
• 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  waeu

  CL

  tax

  cooked rice

  zuu waeu tax

  one CL {cooked rice}

  "a bowl of rice" (Chinese: 一碗饭)
• 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  fuet

  ten

  ghou

  eight

  boux

  CL

  zuu fuet ghou boux

  one ten eight CL

  "18 years old" (Chinese: 十八岁)
• 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  blaem

  CL

  cai

  tree

  hlaus blaem cai

  two CL tree

  "tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it" (Chinese: 两围的树)
• 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  comx

  CL

  ghei

  rice

  zuu comx ghei

  one CL rice

  "a bag of rice" (Chinese: 一袋米)
• 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ding

  CL

  ghei

  rice

  zuu ding ghei

  one CL rice

  "a barrel of rice" (Chinese: 一升米)
• 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  dhak

  CL

  noms

  water

  zuu dhak noms

  one CL water

  "a drop of water" (Chinese: 一滴水)
• 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  dzuen

  CL

  hweek

  banana

  zuu dzuen hweek

  one CL banana

  "a stalk of bananas" (Chinese: 一大挂芭蕉)
• 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  fas

  CL

  fun

  rain/shower

  zuu fas fun

  one CL rain/shower

  "a (rain) shower" (Chinese: 一阵雨)
• 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  fiens

  CL

  gwaek

  hoe

  zuu fiens gwaek

  one CL hoe

  "a hoe" (Chinese: 一把锄头)
• 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  fok

  CL

  gom

  region

  neix

  this

  zuu fok gom neix

  one CL region this

  "this region" (Chinese: 这块地方)
• 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  hlaus

  two

  gieps

  CL

  hya

  thatch

  hlaus gieps hya

  two CL thatch

  "two sheaves of thatch" (Chinese: 两夹茅草)
• 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  guengs

  classifier

  ghei

  hoe

  zuu guengs ghei

  one classifier hoe

  "a basket of rice" (Chinese: 一筐米)
• 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  guety

  CL

  hla

  fish

  zuu guety hla

  one CL fish

  "a string of fish" (Chinese: 一串鱼)
• 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  neny

  CL

  hla

  fish

  zuu neny hla

  one CL fish

  "a string of fish" (Chinese: 一串鱼)
• 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  neny

  CL

  ceeng

  flower

  zuu neny ceeng

  one CL flower

  "a flower" (Chinese: 一枝花)
• 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ghongs

  CL

  hweek

  banana

  zuu ghongs hweek

  one CL banana

  "a grove of banana trees" (Chinese: 一丛芭蕉树)
• 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hoep

  CL

  cuax

  matches

  zuu hoep cuax

  one CL matches

  "a box of matches" (Chinese: 一盒火柴)
• 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hwang

  CL

  zuu

  one

  hwang

  CL

  noms

  water

  zuu hwang zuu hwang noms

  one CL one CL water

  "a ripple (of water)" (Chinese: 一圈一圈的水)
• 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hwaeng

  CL

  man

  a general term for potato

  zuu hwaeng man

  one CL {a general term for potato}

  "a ridge of sweet potatoes" (Chinese: 一垄甘薯)
• 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  hwoen

  CL

  dax

  field

  zuu hwoen dax

  one CL field

  "a field" (Chinese: 一丘田)

  zuu

  one

  hyoen

  CL

  haeus

  quilt

  zuu hyoen haeus

  one CL quilt

  "a quilt" (Chinese: 一床被子)
• 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  op

  CL

  guns

  firewood

  zuu op guns

  one CL firewood

  "an armful of firewood" (Chinese: 一抱柴火)
• 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,

  fa

  We

  buuen

  come

  neix

  here

  bhaeis

  already

  zaux

  have

  fus

  three

  puuen

  CL

  bhe

  ACCENT

  fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe

  We come here already have three CL ACCENT

  "We've been here for three generations." (Chinese: 我们来这儿已有三代了)
• 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.
• 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ruek

  CL

  bou

  pig/hug

  zuu ruek bou

  one CL pig/hug

  "a litter of pigs" (Chinese: 一窝猪)

  zuu

  one

  ruek

  CL

  kai

  chicken

  zuu ruek kai

  one CL chicken

  "a cage of chickens" (Chinese: 一笼鸡)

  zuu

  one

  ruek

  CL

  aenx

  cake

  zuu ruek aenx

  one CL cake

  "a box of cakes" (Chinese: 一盒点心)

  Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ruek

  CL

  dhou

  urine

  zuu ruek dhou

  one CL urine

  "a stream of urine" (Chinese: 一泡尿)
• 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  bhaeis

  Already

  vuek

  do

  zuu

  one

  taen

  CL

  dings.

  demon

  bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.

  Already do one CL demon

  "(The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons." (Chinese: 已经祭了一趟鬼)
• 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  taeng

  CL

  noms

  water

  zuu taeng noms

  one CL water

  "a bucket of water" (Chinese: 一桶水)
• 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  tiep

  CL

  bheuucai

  vegetable

  zuu tiep bheuucai

  one CL vegetable

  "a chopstick-pinch of food" (Chinese: 一夹菜)
• 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  tuek

  CL

  dza

  cigarettes

  zuu tuek dza

  one CL cigarettes

  "a pack of cigarettes" (Chinese: 一包烟)
• 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  veeng

  CL

  zuu veeng

  one CL

  "a household" (Chinese: 一户(人家))
• 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  ghwaen

  hundred

  zaemx

  CL

  zuu ghwaen zaemx

  one hundred CL

  "one hundred steps" (Chinese: 一百步)
• 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  zeeng

  CL

  muens

  rice

  zuu zeeng muens

  one CL rice

  "a stalk of rice" (Chinese: 一穗稻子)

  zuu

  one

  zeeng

  CL

  nyaeus

  salt

  zuu zeeng nyaeus

  one CL salt

  "a grain of coarse salt" (Chinese: 一粒粗盐)

Classifiers for modifying verbs

• 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,

  taeix

  hit/beat

  zuu

  one

  faei

  CL

  taeix zuu faei

  hit/beat one CL

  "to hit/beat once" (Chinese: 打一下)
• 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,

  na

  he/she

  bhaeis

  already

  rien

  say/speak

  hlaus

  two

  gaeis

  CL

  na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis

  he/she already say/speak two CL

  "He already said (it) two times." (Chinese: 他已经说了两遍了)
• 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,

  hei

  go

  zuu

  one

  guen

  CL

  hei zuu guen

  go one CL

  "go (there) one time" (Chinese: 去一次)
• 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,

  bhaeis

  Already

  fun

  rain

  zuu

  one

  caety

  CL

  bhaeis fun zuu caety

  Already rain one CL

  "It already showered." (Chinese: 下了一阵雨)

  kai

  Chicken

  bhaeis

  already

  hyoen

  cock crow

  fus

  three

  caety

  CL

  kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety

  Chicken already {cock crow} three CL

  "The chicken has already crowed three times." (Chinese: 鸡已叫了三遍)
• 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,

  tak

  study

  zuu

  one

  pienx

  CL

  tak zuu pienx

  study one CL

  "read one time" (Chinese: 读一遍)
• 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  caeu

  CL

  fun

  rain

  zuu caeu fun

  one CL rain

  "a shower (describing rain)" (Chinese: 一阵雨)

  zuu

  one

  caeu

  CL

  hwoet

  wind

  zuu caeu hwoet

  one CL wind

  "a gust of wind" (Chinese: 一阵风)
• 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,

  zuu

  one

  caens

  CL

  tax

  rice

  zuu caens tax

  one CL rice

  "a meal" (Chinese: 一顿饭)
• 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,

  teeks

  kick

  zuu

  one

  kok

  CL

  teeks zuu kok

  kick one CL

  "give (it) a kick" (Chinese: 踢一脚)
• 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,

  gaenys

  bite

  zuu

  one

  boms

  CL

  gaenys zuu boms

  bite one CL

  "to take a bite" (Chinese: 咬一口)
• 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,

  lax

  eat

  zuu

  one

  feek

  CL

  tax

  rice

  lax zuu feek tax

  eat one CL rice

  "to take a bite of food" (Chinese: 吃一口饭)

  na

  he/she

  zuu

  one

  feek

  CL

  tun

  word

  ruus

  even

  da

  not

  rien

  say

  na zuu feek tun ruus da rien

  he/she one CL word even not say

  "He did not even say a word." (Chinese: 他一句话也不说)
• 【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,

  gaux

  sleep

  zuu

  one

  pui

  CL

  gaux zuu pui

  sleep one CL

  "time spent in rest/sleep" (Chinese: 睡一觉)

Basic rules for classifiers

^[21][20]

Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in an AB+AB pattern, e.g.,

Daty

bird

zuu

one

kun

CL

zuu

one

kun

CL

bheny.

fly

Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.

bird one CL one CL fly

"Birds fly in groups." (Chinese: 鸟成群成群地飞)

Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,

Zuu

one

lang

CL

ba

dog

neix

this

long

big

dhat!

really/truly

Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!

one CL dog this big really/truly

"This dog is really big!" (Chinese: 这只狗真大！)

Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,

Raux

read aloud

fus

three

gaeis

CL

=

=

Fus

three

gaeis

CL

raux

read

Raux fus gaeis = Fus gaeis raux

{read aloud} three CL = three CL read

"read three times" (Chinese: 读三遍)

In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,

Hou

I

caty

buy

zuu

one

hom,

CL

meuu

you

ngan

also

caty

buy

zuu

one

hom.

CL

Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.

I buy one CL you also buy one CL

"I buy one, and you buy one." (Chinese: 我买一个，你也买一个)

Pronouns

^[22][23]

There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.

Personal pronouns

	singular	plural
1st person	hou, "我" (polite) dhes, "我" (casual)	fa, "我们" (exclusive) gha, "咱们" (inclusive)
2nd person	meuu, "你"	meuuda, "你们"
3rd person	na, "他/她/它"	kun, "他们" kunaeu, "他们"

The different usage of "hou" and "dhes":^[24]

1. The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
2. When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
3. Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
4. Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
5. Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
6. When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,

   Q:

   Q‍:

   Asras

   Who

   dhuus

   is

   hauux?

   there?

   '"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000002A<sup>1</sup>-QINU`"'A:

   A‍:

   Hou

   I

   res!

   ACCENT

   Q: Asras dhuus hauux? A: Hou res!

   Q‍: Who is there? A‍: I ACCENT

   Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I. (Chinese: Q: 谁在那里？A: 我呀！)
   1. If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,

      '"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000002A<sup>5</sup>-QINU`"'Q:

      Q‍:

      Asras

      Who

      dhuus

      is

      hauux?

      there?

      '"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000002A<sup>7</sup>-QINU`"'A:

      A‍:

      Dhes

      Me

      vi!

      ACCENT

      Asras?

      Who?

      Q: Asras dhuus hauux? A: Dhes vi! Asras?

      Q‍: Who is there? A‍: Me ACCENT Who?

      "Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I! Who else?" (Chinese: Q: 谁在那里？A: 我嘛！还有谁？)
   2. When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,

      Tuuen

      Go out

      dhang

      face

      duuengx

      give

      hou

      me

      nga;

      look

      tuuen

      go out

      ca

      eye

      duuengx

      give

      hou

      me

      laeis

      see

      Tuuen dhang duuengx hou nga; tuuen ca duuengx hou laeis

      {Go out} face give me look {go out} eye give me see

      "Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes." (Chinese: 露脸给我瞧；露眼睛给我见)
7. When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
8. In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.

P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.

	Singular 单数	Plural 复数
Reflexive pronouns 反身代名词	paszauus, "自己, self" (男性用, man/male use); zuenzauus, "自己, self" (女性用, woman/female use); veengzauus, "自己, self" (通用, general use) goemzauus, "自己, self" (委婉, polite use)
General pronouns 泛称代名词	uengxtoengs, "大家, everyone"; aeu, "人家, people"; himax, "某人, someone"; aeu uughwaix, "别人, others"

Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,

Na

he

taeix

hit

hluuek

child

daty.

bird

Na taeix hluuek daty.

he hit child bird

"He hit the little bird." (Chinese: 他打小鸟)

dheuu

take

toencai

stick

taeix

hit

na

him

dheuu toencai taeix na

take stick hit him

"take a stick to hit him" (Chinese: 拿木棍打他)

Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,

Gha

we

vou

follow

tun

words

na

his

hei

to

vuek.

do

Gha vou tun na hei vuek.

we follow words his to do

"Let's follow his words to do (it)." (Chinese: 咱们按照他的话去做)

Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,

Neix

this

man

is

hou

I

zuenzauus

self

vuek.

do

Neix man hou zuenzauus vuek.

this is I self do

"I made it myself." (Chinese: 这是我自己做的)

The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

Neix

this

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

man

is

guu na.

his

Neix zuu lang kai man {guu na.}

this one CLF chicken is his

"This chicken is his." (Chinese: 这一只鸡是他的)

Blongs

house

neix

this

man

is

guu dhes.

mine

Blongs neix man {guu dhes.}

house this is mine

"This house is mine." (Chinese: 这房子是我的)

Demonstrative pronouns

• 【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
• 【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
• 【max，那】: that; there

The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,

• 【dhongneix，这】: like this
• 【dhonghauux，那】: like that
• 【hineix，这】: such
• 【hihauux，那】: like that

Other demonstrative pronouns are:

• 【uughwaix，别的】: other
• 【ranx，每】: every

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,

Neix

this

veengs

shirt/top

baen.

new

Neix veengs baen.

this shirt/top new

"This (is) a new dress." (Chinese: 这是新的衣服)

Hauux

that

duis

water buffalo

long.

big

Hauux duis long.

that {water buffalo} big

"That (is) a big buffalo." (Chinese: 那是大水牛)

When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,

Hauux

that

zuu

one

kuuengx

CLF

cai

tree

hleny

good

baisias.

very

Hauux zuu kuuengx cai hleny baisias.

that one CLF tree good very

"That tree is very good." (Chinese: 那一棵树好得很)

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,

Neix

this

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

ghweis.

fat

Neix zuu lang kai ghweis.

this one CLF chicken fat

"This chicken is fat." (Chinese: 这一只鸡肥)

Zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

neix

this

ghweis.

fat

Zuu lang kai neix ghweis.

one CLF chicken this fat

"This chicken is fat." (Chinese: 这一只鸡肥)

If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,

Neix

this

man

are

hlaus

two

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

enyx.

little

Neix man hlaus lang kai enyx.

this are two CLF chicken little

"These are two chicks." (Chinese: 这是两只小鸡)

The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,

Dhongneix

like this

vuek

do

yos?

Q

Dhongneix vuek yos?

{like this} do Q

"Is it done like this?" (Chinese: 这样做吗？)

Gong

stuff

dhongneix

like this

hleny

good

yos?

Q

Gong dhongneix hleny yos?

stuff {like this} good Q

"Is such a thing as this good?" (Chinese: 这样的东西好吗？)

Yous

don't

rien

say

dhonghauux.

like that

Yous rien dhonghauux.

don't say {like that}

"Don't say that." (Chinese: 别那样说)

Meuu

you

dhonghauux

like that

yos.

Q

Meuu dhonghauux yos.

you {like that} Q

"Are you like that?" (Chinese: 你是那样的吗？)

There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,

Zuu

one

kun

CLF

daty

bird

hauux

that

bheny

fly

he.

ACCENT

Zuu kun daty hauux bheny he.

one CLF bird that fly ACCENT

"The flock of birds (is) flying away." (Chinese: 那一群鸟飞了)

Zuugit

some

ghei

rice

neix

this

ghei

rice

uuras?

whose

Zuugit ghei neix ghei uuras?

some rice this rice whose

"Whose rice is this?" (Chinese: 这些米是谁的？)

When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,

Buuemx

shrimp

neix

this

long.

big

Buuemx neix long.

shrimp this big

"This shrimp is big." (Chinese: 这只虾大)

Na

he

qieus

take

hloei

many/much

neix.

so/such

Na qieus hloei neix.

he take many/much so/such

"He took so much." (Chinese: 他拿这么多)

Meuu

you

dheuu

take/want

raux

little/few

hauux.

so/such

Meuu dheuu raux hauux.

you take/want little/few so/such

"You took/want so little." (Chinese: 你要这么少)

When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,

Meuu

you

neix

empty word

kweis

want

dheuu

take

gong

stuff

meshes?

what

Meuu neix kweis dheuu gong meshes?

you {empty word} want take stuff what

"What are you going to take?" (Chinese: 你要拿什么东西？)

Uuras

who

hauux

empty word

gongx

look for

hou?

me

Uuras hauux gongx hou?

who {empty word} {look for} me

"Who is looking for me?" (Chinese: 谁找我？)

The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,

Ranx

every

zuen

CLF

lax

eat

zuu

one

hom.

CLF

Ranx zuen lax zuu hom.

every CLF eat one CLF

"Everyone eats one." (Chinese: 每个人吃一个)

Ranx

every

ranx

every

zuen

CLF

uuaeu

man

ruus

all

lax

eat

zuu

one

hom.

CLF

Ranx ranx zuen uuaeu ruus lax zuu hom.

every every CLF man all eat one CLF

"Everyone eats one." (Chinese: 每一个人都吃一个)

The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,

gong

stuff

uughwaix

other

gong uughwaix

stuff other

"other stuff" (Chinese: 别的东西)

别人（他人，不相干的人）

aeu

man

uughwaix

other

aeu uughwaix

man other

"other's" (Chinese: 别的东西)

Zaux

have

uughwaix

other

cas

or

da?

not

Zaux uughwaix cas da?

have other or not

"Do (you) have (any) other stuff?" (Chinese: 有别的没有？)

Interrogative pronouns

• 【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
• 【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
• 【dhongras，怎样】: How?
• 【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
• 【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
• 【meshes，什么】: What?
• others

The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,

Uuras

who?

gongx

look for

hou?

me

Uuras gongx hou?

who? {look for} me

"Who is looking for me?" (Chinese: 谁找我？)

Meuu

you

laeis

see

uuras?

who?

Meuu laeis uuras?

you see who?

"Who do you see?" (Chinese: 你看见谁？)

Na

he

buuen

come

blongs

house

uuras?

who?

Na buuen blongs uuras?

he come house who?

"Whose house is he coming to?" (Chinese: 他来谁的家？)

Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" is placed before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

Nyiu

cow

max

that

man

is

guu uuras?

whose?

Nyiu max man {guu uuras}?

cow that is whose?

"Whose cow is that?" (Chinese: 那黄牛是谁的？)

Veengs

shirt/top

neix

this

man

is

guu uuras?

whose?

Veengs neix man {guu uuras}?

shirt/top this is whose?

"Whose shirt/top is this?" (Chinese: 这衣服是谁的？)

The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,

Gong

stuff

meshes

what

vaeu

most

hleny?

good

Gong meshes vaeu hleny?

stuff what most good

"What is the best stuff?" (Chinese: 什么东西最好？)

Na

he

kweis

want

dheuu

take

meshes?

what

Na kweis dheuu meshes?

he want take what

"What does he want to take?" (Chinese: 他要拿什么？)

The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,

Na

he

dhuus

exist

ras?

where?

Na dhuus ras?

he exist where?

"Where is he?" (Chinese: 他在哪里？)

When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,

Ras

which

zuu

one

hom

CLF

blongs

house

vaeu

most

long?

big

Ras zuu hom blongs vaeu long?

which one CLF house most big

"Which house is the biggest one?" (Chinese: 哪一个房子最大？)

When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,

Coem

fruit

neix

this

long

big

ras?

how

Coem neix long ras?

fruit this big how

"How big is this fruit?" (Chinese: 这果子有多大？)

The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,

Dhongras

How

lax

eat

ngan

also

da

not

bhaeis.

finish

Dhongras lax ngan da bhaeis.

How eat also not finish

"There is more food than we can eat." (Chinese: 怎么吃也吃不完)

Ang

hilly field

neix

this

ghwa

plant

dhongras?

how?

Ang neix ghwa dhongras?

{hilly field} this plant how?

"How is this hilly field to be planted?" (Chinese: 这山栏地怎样种？)

The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu

you

qiras

when

hei

go

qix?

street

Meuu qiras hei qix?

you when go street

"When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?" (Chinese: 你什么时候上街？)

Na

he

qiras

when

beuubuuen

go back

ohyaeu?

school

Na qiras beuubuuen ohyaeu?

he when {go back} school

"When is he going back to school?" (Chinese: 他什么时候返校？)

The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,

Meuu

you

zaux

have

hloeiras,

how many

hou

I

dheuu

take

hloeiras.

how many

Meuu zaux hloeiras, hou dheuu hloeiras.

you have {how many} I take {how many}

"However many you have, I will take them." (Chinese: 你有多少，我要多少)

Adverbs

^[25][26]

Negation

• 【da，不】: not
• 【yous，不要，别】: Do not
• others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,

Hansneix

now

na

he/she

da

not

hei.

go

Hansneix na da hei.

now he/she not go

"Today he won't go." (Chinese: 今天他不去)

Gong

stuff

neix

this

reek

bad

he,

ACCENT

yous

don't

lax.

eat

Gong neix reek he, yous lax.

stuff this bad ACCENT don't eat

"This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!" (Chinese: 这东西坏了，别吃！)

When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,

Na

he/she

da

not

buuen.

come

Na da buuen.

he/she not come

"He won't come." (Chinese: 他不来)

Na

he/she

da

not

buuen

come

zo

ACCENT

Na da buuen zo

he/she not come ACCENT

"He hasn't come yet!" (Chinese: 他还没来呢)

When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,

Meuu

you

zaux

have

kius

ball

da?

Q

Meuu zaux kius da?

you have ball Q

"Do you have a ball?" (Chinese: 你有球吗？)

Degree

• 【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
• 【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
• 【zangs，太】: too
• 【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
• 【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
• 【dhat，很】: very
• 【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
• others

These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,

vaeu

most

reek

bad

vaeu reek

most bad

"worst" (Chinese: 最坏)

zangs

too

fous

hot

zangs fous

too hot

"too hot" (Chinese: 太热)

nguenxges

even

hleny

good

nguenxges hleny

even good

"even better" (Chinese: 更好)

loeppvaix

exactly

hleny

good

loeppvaix hleny

exactly good

"just right" (Chinese: 恰恰好)

But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,

kaeix

cold

dhat

very

kaeix dhat

cold very

"very cold" (Chinese: 很冷)

dzuuns

quick

baisias

very much

dzuuns baisias

quick {very much}

"very quick" (Chinese: 非常快)

To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,

vaeu

most

dzuuns

quick

baisias

very much

vaeu dzuuns baisias

most quick {very much}

"Very, very (extremely) quick" (Chinese: 快极了)

The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,

Veengs

shirt/top

neix

this

hleny

good

dhatdhat.

very much

Veengs neix hleny dhatdhat.

shirt/top this good {very much}

"This shirt/top is a very good one." (Chinese: 这件衣服非常好)

Scope, extent, or range

• 【ruus，都】: all
• 【ngan，也，都】: also, all
• 【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
• 【mans，仅，只】: only
• others

These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,

Uengxtoengs

everyone

ruus

all

qim.

believe

Uengxtoengs ruus qim.

everyone all believe

"Everyone believes that." (Chinese: 大家都相信)

Hou

I

ngan

also

vuek.

do

Hou ngan vuek.

I also do

"I also do (that)." (Chinese: 我也做)

Na

he/she

mans/nyoengx

only

dheuu

take

zuu

one

hom

CLF

coem.

fruit

Na mans/nyoengx dheuu zuu hom coem.

he/she only take one CLF fruit

"He only took one fruit." (Chinese: 他只要一个果子)

These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,

Na

he/she

mans-nyoengx

only

zaux

have

zuu

one

zuen

CLF

hluuek.

child

Na mans-nyoengx zaux zuu zuen hluuek.

he/she only have one CLF child

"He has only one child." (Chinese: 他只有一个孩子)

Timing

• 【bhaeis，已经】: already
• 【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
• 【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
• 【faets，正在】: in process
• 【dhom，还】: still, yet
• 【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
• 【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
• others

These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,

Na

he/she

naeus naeus

just

buuen.

come

Na {naeus naeus} buuen.

he/she just come

"He has just come." (Chinese: 他刚刚来)

Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,

Na

he/she

dhom

still

da

not

hei

go

zo.

ACCENT

Na dhom da hei zo.

he/she still not go ACCENT

"He hasn't gone yet." (Chinese: 他还没去呢)

Zuughanx

right after

hluet

enter

blongs

house

hou

I

fan

then

laeis

see

na.

he/she

Zuughanx hluet blongs hou fan laeis na.

{right after} enter house I then see he/she

"As soon as I entered the house, I saw him." (Chinese: 一进门我就看见他)

meuu

you

buuen

come

dhaens

to

neix

here

goms

then

bhaeisyous

never/not

hei

go

beuu.

back

meuu buuen dhaens neix goms bhaeisyous hei beuu.

you come to here then never/not go back

"(Since) You came here, don't go back." (Chinese: 你来到这里了，就别再回去了)

Meuu

you

kuenx

first

rien.

say

Meuu kuenx rien.

you first say

"You speak first." (Chinese: 你先说)

However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,

Meuu

you

rien

say

kuenx.

first

Meuu rien kuenx.

you say first

"You speak first." (Chinese: 你先说)

Duplication or continuation

• 【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
• 【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
• 【toengs，互相】: each other
• others

These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,

Meuu

you

loms

again

rien

say

zuu

one

gaeis.

CLF

Meuu loms rien zuu gaeis.

you again say one CLF

"Repeat that once more." (Chinese: 你再说一遍)

Kun

they

taeix

fight

toengs

each other

he.

ACCENT

Kun taeix toengs he.

they fight {each other} ACCENT

"They fought each other." (Chinese: 他们互相打架了)

The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuuda

you.PL

yous

don't

taeix

fight

toengs

each other

as!

ACCENT

Meuuda yous taeix toengs as!

{you.PL} don't fight {each other} ACCENT

"Don't fight each other!" (Chinese: 你们别互相打架了！)

Emphasis or transition

• 【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
• 【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
• 【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
• others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Baiscai

big-tree

long

big

neix

such

oms

but

caeu.

break

Baiscai long neix oms caeu.

big-tree big such but break

"Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!" (Chinese: 这样大的树却断了)

Aeu

others

naus

EMPH

cas

scold

meuu

you

vuek

do

meshes

what (= why)

Aeu naus cas meuu vuek meshes

others EMPH scold you do {what (= why)}

"Why do people scold you?" (Chinese: 人家到底为什么骂你？)

A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,

Cuuslax

so

na

he/she

dhuus

exist/in

max.

there

Cuuslax na dhuus max.

so he/she exist/in there

"So, there he is!" (Chinese: 原来他在那里！)

Conjunctions

^[27][28]

Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases

• 【uengx，和，与】: and
• 【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
• 【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
• others

That link nouns:

Ba

dog

ku

and

bou

pig

zestoengs

fight each other

kweis

want

lax

eat

tax.

rice

Ba ku bou zestoengs kweis lax tax.

dog and pig {fight each other} want eat rice

"A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat." (Chinese: 狗和猪争吃)

Toengsdhun

wife

nyuek

and

toengsblongs

husband

uengxtoengs

together

ojiep.

learn

Toengsdhun nyuek toengsblongs uengxtoengs ojiep.

wife and husband together learn

"A husband and (his) wife study together." (Chinese: 妻子和丈夫共同学习)

That link pronouns:

Hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

uengxtoengs

together

vuek

do

gong.

work

Hou uengx meuu uengxtoengs vuek gong.

I and you together do work

"I and you will work together." (Chinese: 我和你共同干活)

That link noun phrases:

Hou

I

duuengx

give

meuu

you

dheuu

AUX

zuu

one

hom

CLF

coem

fruit

long

big

ku

and

hlaus

two

hom

CLF

guengs.

basket

Hou duuengx meuu dheuu zuu hom coem long ku hlaus hom guengs.

I give you AUX one CLF fruit big and two CLF basket

"I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets." (Chinese: 我给你一个大果子和两个大箩筐)

That link verb-object phrases:

Dhes

I

hei

go

qix

street

lax

eat

tax

rice

ku

and

lax

eat

bhiengx.

sticky rice wine

Dhes hei qix lax tax ku lax bhiengx.

I go street eat rice and eat {sticky rice wine}

"I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine." (Chinese: 我上街吃饭和喝酒)

These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,

Uengx

and

hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

uengx

and

na

he

hei

go

caty

buy

gong.

stuff

Uengx hou uengx meuu uengx na hei caty gong.

and I and you and he go buy stuff

"I and you and he will go shopping." (Chinese: 我和你和他去买东西)

These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:

	As a conjunction	As a preposition
Ku	Hou I ku and na he hei. go Hou ku na hei. I and he go "I and he go." (Chinese: 我和他去)	Hou I rien say ku to na. him Hou rien ku na. I say to him "I said to him."(Chinese: 我跟他说)
Uengx	Meuu You zaux have bhit pen uengx and qias paper hyos? Q Meuu zaux bhit uengx qias hyos? You have pen and paper Q "Do you have pen and paper?" (Chinese: 你有纸和笔吗？)	Meuu You rien say uengx to na him hyos? Q Meuu rien uengx na hyos? You say to him Q "Are you talking to him?" (Chinese: 你跟他说吗？)
Nyuek	Pasdza Father nyuek and hluuek child(ren) dhuus in blongs. house Pasdza nyuek hluuek dhuus blongs. Father and child(ren) in house "The father and the child(ren) are at home." (Chinese: 父亲和孩子在家)	Baisdza Mother gaux lie down nyuek with hluuek. child(ren) Baisdza gaux nyuek hluuek. Mother {lie down} with child(ren) "The mother sleeps with her child(ren)." (Chinese: 母亲和孩子睡)

The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,

Baisdza

Mother

zok

rebuke

nyuek

and

cas,

scold,

pasdza

father

cas

scold

nyuek

and

taeix.

beat

Baisdza zok nyuek cas, pasdza cas nyuek taeix.

Mother rebuke and scold, father scold and beat

"(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat." (Chinese: 母亲边数落边骂，父亲又骂又打)

Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,

Duis

water buffalo

hauux

that

long

big

hloeis

and

ghweis.

fat

Duis hauux long hloeis ghweis.

{water buffalo} that big and fat

"That buffalo is big and fat." (Chinese: 那头水牛大而且肥)

Guen

road

neix

this

bheeng

wide

loms

and

muety.

straight

Guen neix bheeng loms muety.

road this wide and straight

"This road is wide and straight." (Chinese: 这条路宽而且直)

Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases

• 【cuus，或者，还是】: or
• 【cas，或者，还是】: or
• 【cuusnaus，还是】: or
• others

Meuu

You

gaux

lie down

cuus

or

zongs

sit

ngan

also

loepp.

allow

Meuu gaux cuus zongs ngan loepp.

You {lie down} or sit also allow

"You are allowed to either lie down or sit down." (Chinese: 你躺或者坐着都可以)

naeusneix

Recently

meuu

you

hleny

good

cas

or

da？

not

naeusneix meuu hleny cas da？

Recently you good or not

"How have you been recently?" (Chinese: 近来你好吗？)

Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,

Na

He

hei

go

cuusnaus

or

hou

I

hei？

go

Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？

He go or I go

"Is he going or should I go?" (Chinese: 他去还是我去？)

Link a single subordinate clause

• 【hans，因为】: because
• 【dosdzis，所以】: so
• 【laeis，如果】: if
• 【tom，但是】: but
• 【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
• others

Hans

Because

na

he

da

not

buuen,

come,

hou

I

da

not

hei

go

bhe.

ACCENT

Hans na da buuen, hou da hei bhe.

Because he not come, I not go ACCENT

"Because he didn't come, I didn't go." (Chinese: 因为他不来，所以我不去了)

Na

He

kueng

know

caqias,

script

dosdzis

so

na

he

kuengghweuu

know

li.

principle

Na kueng caqias, dosdzis na kuengghweuu li.

He know script so he know principle

"Because he knows the script, he understands the principle." (Chinese: 因为他有知识，所以他懂道理)

Laeis

If

meuu

you

hei,

go

hou

I

goms

then

dzoeng

wait

meuu.

you

Laeis meuu hei, hou goms dzoeng meuu.

If you go I then wait you

"If you go, then I'll wait for you." (Chinese: 如果你去，我就等你)

qimax

Before

gha

we

vaet

poor

baisias,

very much

tom

but

hansneix

now

da

not

dhong

like

qihauux

before

bhe.

ACCENT

qimax gha vaet baisias, tom hansneix da dhong qihauux bhe.

Before we poor {very much} but now not like before ACCENT

"Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before." (Chinese: 以前我们很穷，但是现在和那个时候不同了)

Meuu

You

hei,

go

dagoms

otherwise

na

he

hei.

go

Meuu hei, dagoms na hei.

You go otherwise he go

"You go, otherwise he'll go." (Chinese: 你去，不然他去)

The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,

Na

He

dagoms

not only

gieu

know how

laix

plow

dax,

field

uuloms

but also

gieu

know how

kieux

reap

muens.

rice

Na dagoms gieu laix dax, uuloms gieu kieux muens.

He {not only} {know how} plow field {but also} {know how} reap rice

"Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest." (Chinese: 他不但会犁田，而且会割稻)

Meuu

You

fei

walk

guen

road

hei,

go

dagoms

otherwise

zongs

sit

qia

car

hei.

go

Meuu fei guen hei, dagoms zongs qia hei.

You walk road go otherwise sit car go

"You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)." (Chinese: 你走路去，或者坐车去)

Link two or more clauses

The first clause	The latter clause
Not only... 不但...	but also/even... 而且...
dacaux... danyoengx... dagoms...	uengx... koms... toep...

Gas

Horse

dacaux

not only

lax

eat

gans,

grass

lax

eat

uengx

also

noms.

water

Gas dacaux lax gans, lax uengx noms.

Horse {not only} eat grass eat also water

"A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water." (Chinese: 马不但吃草，而且喝水)

Na

He

dacaux

not only

taeix

beat

meuu,

you

taeix

beat

koms

even

hou.

me

Na dacaux taeix meuu, taeix koms hou.

He {not only} beat you beat even me

"Not only did he beat you, he even beat me." (Chinese: 他不但打你，而且打我)

Dhes

I

dacaux

not only

zaux

have

pasghueng,

younger brother,

zaux

have

toep

even

baisghueng.

younger sister

Dhes dacaux zaux pasghueng, zaux toep baisghueng.

I {not only} have {younger brother}, have even {younger sister}

"I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)." (Chinese: 我不但有弟弟，而且有妹妹)

Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,

Duis

buffalo

neix

this

danyoengx

not only

long

big

kaux,

strength

uuloms

but also

doengs

live

gans.

grass

Duis neix danyoengx long kaux, uuloms doengs gans.

buffalo this {not only} big strength {but also} live grass

"The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly." (Chinese: 这头牛不但力气大，而且安静吃草)

Na

He

dagoms

not only

gieu

know how

laix

plow

dax,

field

uuloms

but also

gieu

know how

kieux

reap

muens.

rice

Na dagoms gieu laix dax, uuloms gieu kieux muens.

He {not only} {know how} plow field {but also} {know how} reap rice

"He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice." (Chinese: 他不但会犁田，而且会割稻)

The first clause	The latter clause
Because... 因为...	so/therefore... 所以...
hans... ienxuis... (this is a loan word)	dosdzis... (this is a loan word)

Hans

Because

uupans

yesterday

fas

sky

fun,

rain

dosdzis

so

hou

I

gax

cannot

buuen.

come

Hans uupans fas fun, dosdzis hou gax buuen.

Because yesterday sky rain so I cannot come

"(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come." (Chinese: 因为昨天下雨，所以我不能来)

Relationships between linked elements

Parallel relationship

The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,

Hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

hei.

go

Hou uengx meuu hei.

I and you go

"I'll go with you." (Chinese: 我和你去)

Toengsdhun

Wife

nyuek

and

toengsblongs

husband

uengxtoengs

together

ojiep.

study/learn

Toengsdhun nyuek toengsblongs uengxtoengs ojiep.

Wife and husband together study/learn

"The husband and wife study together." (Chinese: 妻子和丈夫共同学习)

Hou

I

hei

go

qix

street

caty

buy

veengs

shirt/top

ku

and

caty

buy

kous.

pants

Hou hei qix caty veengs ku caty kous.

I go street buy shirt/top and buy pants

"I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants. (Chinese: 我上街买上衣和买裤子)

Progressive relationship

The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

Na

He

lax

eat

zuu

one

feek

bite

loms

and

zuu

one

feek.

bite

Na lax zuu feek loms zuu feek.

He eat one bite and one bite

"He eats (one) bite by (one) bite." (Chinese: 他吃一口又一口)

Gong

stuff

neix

this

fas

sour

hloeis

and

ghety.

hot

Gong neix fas hloeis ghety.

stuff this sour and hot

"This is sour and hot." (Chinese: 这东西又酸又辣)

Na

He

dacaux

not only

cas

scold

hou,

me

cas

scold

koms/uengx

even/and

meuu.

you

Na dacaux cas hou, cas koms/uengx meuu.

He {not only} scold me scold even/and you

"Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you." (Chinese: 他不但骂我，而且骂你)

In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.

Optional relationship

The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

Meuuda

You

kweis

want

hei

go

geek

look for

hla

fish

cuus

or

da?

not

Meuuda kweis hei geek hla cuus da?

You want go {look for} fish or not

"Are you going to go fishing or not?" (Chinese: 你要去捕鱼还是不去？)

Meuu

You

kweis

want

dheuu

take

zuucoeis

litchi

cuusnaus

or

dheuu

take

zuuyunx？

coconut

Meuu kweis dheuu zuucoeis cuusnaus dheuu zuuyunx？

You want take litchi or take coconut

"Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?" (Chinese: 你要拿荔枝还是椰子？)

Transitional relationship

The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

Na

He

ghwaix

is not

Hlai,

Li

tom

but

kueng

know

rien

say

tun

language

Hlai

Li

Na ghwaix Hlai, tom kueng rien tun Hlai

He {is not} Li but know say language Li

"He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect." (Chinese: 他不是黎族，但会讲黎话)

Na

He

kweis

want

hei,

go

oms

but

wenysnaeis

no

hwan

day

Na kweis hei, oms wenysnaeis hwan

He want go but no day

"He's willing to go, but there's no time." (Chinese: 他愿意去，但没有时间)

Conditional relationship

The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,

Dalunx

no matter what

na

he

rien

say

dhongras,

how

hou

I

ngan

also

hei

go

Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei

{no matter what} he say how I also go

"No matter what he says, I'll go." (Chinese: 不管他怎样说，我都去)

Laeis

If

na

he

da

not

buuen,

come

hou

I

goms

then

hei

go

lo

ACCENT

Laeis na da buuen, hou goms hei lo

If he not come I then go ACCENT

"If he doesn't come, then I'll go." (Chinese: 如果他不来，我就去了)

Causal relationship

The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

Dhes

I

da

not

hei,

go

hans

because

zaux

have

cok

sickness

Dhes da hei, hans zaux cok

I not go because have sickness

"I'm not going because I'm sick." (Chinese: 我不去，因为有病)

Fas

Sky

fun,

rain

yous

don't

hei,

go

dagoms

otherwise

ia

gain

cok

sickness

Fas fun, yous hei, dagoms ia cok

Sky rain don't go otherwise gain sickness

"It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick." (Chinese: 天下雨了，别去，不然要得病)

Prepositions

^[29][30]

Place, direction, or time

The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

• 【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
• 【tuuen，从】: from
• 【ueks，里】: inside

Meuu

You

doengs

live

dhuus

in

max

there

hyo!

ACCENT

Meuu doengs dhuus max hyo!

You live in there ACCENT

"You live there!" (Chinese: 你住在那里哟！)

Meuu

You

buuen

come

tuuen

from

ras?

where?

Meuu buuen tuuen ras?

You come from where?

"Where do you come from?" (Chinese: 你从哪里来？)

However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu

You

dhuus

in

max

there

doengs

live

hyo!

ACCENT

Meuu dhuus max doengs hyo!

You in there live ACCENT

"You live there!" (Chinese: 你住在那里哟！)

The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,

zongs

Sit

dhuus

in

ueks

inside

hauux

there

zongs dhuus ueks hauux

Sit in inside there

"Sit in (inside) there" (Chinese: 坐在那里面)

The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,

Ueks

Inside

blongs

house

neix

this

mangshais

dark

baisias.

very

Ueks blongs neix mangshais baisias.

Inside house this dark very

"Inside of the house is very dark." (Chinese: 这屋子里面暗得很)

The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.

• 【dhaens，到】: until
• 【zok，往，向】: toward, to
• 【dhuas，过】: through
• 【buu，在】: on, in
• 【beeng，沿】: along

Bhousaeu

Guest

dzoeng

wait

meuu

you

dhaens

until

cop.

night

Bhousaeu dzoeng meuu dhaens cop.

Guest wait you until night

"The guest(s) waited for you until night." (Chinese: 客人等你到晚上)

Fa

We

hei

go

zok

to/toward

ohyaeu.

school

Fa hei zok ohyaeu.

We go to/toward school

"We are going to the school." (Chinese: 我们到学校去)

Aeu

People

fei

walk

reuureuu

back and forth

dhuas

along

ngaeix

edge

bhous.

village

Aeu fei reuureuu dhuas ngaeix bhous.

People walk {back and forth} along edge village

"People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village." (Chinese: 人们络绎不绝走过村边)

Ghais

Tell

na

him

pien

wear

buu

on

huen.

body

Ghais na pien buu huen.

Tell him wear on body

"Tell him to wear it." (Chinese: 叫他穿在身上)

fei

walk

beeng

along

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

fei beeng ngaeix noms

walk along edge/bank river

"walk along the river bank" (Chinese: 沿着河边走)

The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

• 【niens，沿】: along

Na

He

niens

along

guen

road

hauux

that

hei

go

ohyaeu.

school

Na niens guen hauux hei ohyaeu.

He along road that go school

"He traveled along that road to school." (Chinese: 他沿着那条路去学校)

However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after a verb, e.g.,

fei

walk

niens

along

hyoen

ridge

dax

field

fei niens hyoen dax

walk along ridge field

"walk along the ridge of the field" (Chinese: 沿着田埂走)

Prepositions related to method

• 【aens，按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)

Kunaeu

They

aens

according to

laeustaeng

work

gieu

strong

ku

and

gax

weak

buuen

come

gauxtoengs.

distribute

Kunaeu aens laeustaeng gieu ku gax buuen gauxtoengs.

They {according to} work strong and weak come distribute

"They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers." (Chinese: 他们按劳动的强弱来分配)

Prepositions related to reason, or purpose

• 【guu ghais，为了】: for the purpose
• 【uis，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
• 【uislaeus，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
• 【cuuslax，由于】: because of

vuuengx

disturb

hwoek

heart

cuuslax

because of

meuu

you

vuuengx hwoek cuuslax meuu

disturb heart {because of} you

"upset because of you" (Chinese: 心烦由于你)

The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.

Veeng

Master

duis

water buffalo

kweis

want

beuu

go back

fan

then

taeix

hit

duis,

water buffalo

guu ghais

in order that

duis

water buffalo

dzuuns

fast/quick

fei.

walk

Veeng duis kweis beuu fan taeix duis, {guu ghais} duis dzuuns fei.

Master {water buffalo} want {go back} then hit {water buffalo} {in order that} {water buffalo} fast/quick walk

"The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast." (Chinese: 牛主人要回家就打牛，为了叫牛快走)

Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".

Prepositions related to object

The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

• 【toep，连】: even
• 【koms，连】: even
• 【goem，对，和，与】: to, with
• 【ku，对，和】: to

Na

He

vaet

poor

toep/koms

even

fok

place

gaux

to sleep

ngan

also

wenysnaeis.

no

Na vaet toep/koms fok gaux ngan wenysnaeis.

He poor even place {to sleep} also no

"He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep." (Chinese: 他穷得连睡的地方也没有)

vuektun

sing

goem

with

na.

him

vuektun goem na.

sing with him

"Sing a song with him." (Chinese: 和他对唱山歌)

Baisdza

Mother

rien

say

ku

to

na.

him

Baisdza rien ku na.

Mother say to him

"(His) mother told him." (Chinese: 母亲对他说)

However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,

Baisdza

Mother

ku

to

na

him

rien.

say

Baisdza ku na rien.

Mother to him say

"(His) mother told him." (Chinese: 母亲对他说)

When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.

• 【dhuas，过】: than

Ghueng

Younger sister

baiscuty

youngest

hlenymuuen

beautiful

dhuas

than

kun

plural

hluuekkauus.

older sister

Ghueng baiscuty hlenymuuen dhuas kun hluuekkauus.

{Younger sister} youngest beautiful than plural {older sister}

"The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters." (Chinese: 幺妹子比姐姐们漂亮)

The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

• 【uengx，和，跟】: with

Na

He

uengx

with

enyxlauux

kids

taeixtoengs.

fight

Na uengx enyxlauux taeixtoengs.

He with kids fight

"He fought with the child(ren)." (Chinese: 他跟小孩打架)

However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,

Na

He

buuen

come

doengs

play

uengx

with

hluuekpasghueng.

young brother

Na buuen doengs uengx hluuekpasghueng.

He come play with {young brother}

"He came to play with (his) little brother." (Chinese: 他来跟小弟玩)

Prepositions related to agent

The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

• 【ia，被】: by
• 【ghoems，被】: by
• 【dheuu，把】: by using

Na

He

ia

by

ba

dog

gaenys

bite

he!

ACCENT

Na ia ba gaenys he!

He by dog bite ACCENT

"He was bitten by a dog!" (Chinese: 他被狗咬了)

Hou

I

ghoems

by

na

him

taeix

hit

bhe.

ACCENT

Hou ghoems na taeix bhe.

I by him hit ACCENT

"I was hit by him." (Chinese: 我被他打了)

Baisdza

Mother

dheuu

use

ghei

rice

roengx

cook

tax.

rice

Baisdza dheuu ghei roengx tax.

Mother use rice cook rice

"Mother cooked rice from grains of rice." (Chinese: 母亲把米煮成饭)

Auxiliary words

^[31][32]

Structural auxiliary words

There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"

When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,

Gong

Stuff

neix

this

guu

belong to

meuu.

you

Gong neix guu meuu.

Stuff this {belong to} you

"This is yours." (Chinese: 这东西是你的)

Blongs

House

hauux

that

man

is

guu

belong to

dhes.

me

Blongs hauux man guu dhes.

House that is {belong to} me

"That house is mine." (Chinese: 那房子是我的)

However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,

Veengs

shirt/top

neix

this

veengs

shirt/top

na.

he/she

Veengs neix veengs na.

shirt/top this shirt/top he/she

"This dress is hers." (Chinese: 这件衣服是她的)

The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,

Uu-ghaens

NMLZ-red

hleny.

good

Uu-ghaens hleny.

NMLZ-red good

"The red one is good." (Chinese: 红的好)

Neix

This

man

is

gong

stuff

uu-lax.

NMLZ-eat

Neix man gong uu-lax.

This is stuff NMLZ-eat

"This is something that can be eaten." (Chinese: 这是吃的东西)

Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,

Kaeix

Cold

dhaens

so as to

nyan.

shiver

Kaeix dhaens nyan.

Cold {so as to} shiver

"It is so cold as to (make one) shiver." (Chinese: 冷得发抖)

Na

He

hei

go

dhaens

arrive

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

fan

then

beuuluung.

come back

Na hei dhaens ngaeix noms fan beuuluung.

He go arrive edge/bank river then {come back}

"He went to the riverside and later he will come back." (Chinese: 他去到河边就回来)

Past tense auxiliary word

The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,

Hou

I

hei

go

dhuas

PERF

Bhakgengs.

Beijing

Hou hei dhuas Bhakgengs.

I go PERF Beijing

"I have been to Beijing." (Chinese: 我去过北京)

Acting-receiving auxiliary words

Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.

The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.

Pashlaus

Older brother

hou

my

duuengx

give

na

him

lax

AUX

zuu

one

lang

CLF

ba.

dog

Pashlaus hou duuengx na lax zuu lang ba.

{Older brother} my give him AUX one CLF dog

"My brother gave him a dog." (Chinese: 我哥哥给他一只狗)

Hou

I

rien

say

duuengx

to

na

him

lax.

AUX

Hou rien duuengx na lax.

I say to him AUX

"I spoke to him." (Chinese: 我讲给他)

The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,

Na

He

duuengx

give

hou

me

dheuu

AUX

zuu

one

hom

CLF

coem.

fruit

Na duuengx hou dheuu zuu hom coem.

He give me AUX one CLF fruit

"He gave me one fruit." (Chinese: 他给我一个水果)

Zuu

One

hom

CLF

zuuyunx

coconut

neix

this

duuengx

give

meuu

you

dheuu.

AUX

Zuu hom zuuyunx neix duuengx meuu dheuu.

One CLF coconut this give you AUX

"This coconut is for you." (Chinese: 这一个椰子给你)

Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.

Accent markers

^[33][34]

Indicative mood

There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"

【lo, 了】

This word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,

Fas

sky

fun

rain

lo.

ACCENT

Fas fun lo.

sky rain ACCENT

"It's going to rain." (Chinese: 天要下雨了)

Meuu

you

dhongneix

like this

vuek

do

goms

then

da

not

dhiu

right

lo.

ACCENT

Meuu dhongneix vuek goms da dhiu lo.

you {like this} do then not right ACCENT

"It is not right for you to do this." (Chinese: 你这样做就不对了)

【bhe, 啊】

This word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,

Fas

sky

fun

rain

bhe.

ACCENT

Fas fun bhe.

sky rain ACCENT

"It is raining (it rained)." (Chinese: 天（已经）下雨了)

Aeu

person

reek

bad

hauux

that

hlaeux

die

bhe.

ACCENT

Aeu reek hauux hlaeux bhe.

person bad that die ACCENT

"That bad man died." (Chinese: 那个坏人死了)

【ve/vi, 的, 了】

This word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,

Qias

letter

neix

this

ghwaix

is not

hou

I

taeis

write

ve.

ACCENT

Qias neix ghwaix hou taeis ve.

letter this {is not} I write ACCENT

"This word is not what I wrote." (Chinese: 这字不是我写的)

Meuu

you

duuengx

give

hou

I

goms

then

bhaeis

finish

ve.

ACCENT

Meuu duuengx hou goms bhaeis ve.

you give I then finish ACCENT

"Give (it to) me, then it's done." (Chinese: 你给我就行了)

【he，啦】

This word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,

Dhes

I

vuek

do

gong

work

bhaeis

finished

he.

ACCENT

Dhes vuek gong bhaeis he.

I do work finished ACCENT

"I finished (my) job." (Chinese: 我做完工了)

【zo/zu，还…呢】

This word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,

Hla

Fish

dhom

still

hlou

alive

zo.

ACCENT

Hla dhom hlou zo.

Fish still alive ACCENT

"The fish is still alive." (Chinese: 鱼还活着呢)

Na

He

dhom

still

da

not

vuek

do

zo!

ACCENT

Na dhom da vuek zo!

He still not do ACCENT

"He hasn't done it yet." (Chinese: 他还没做呢)

Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,

Aeu

person

reek

bad

hauux

that

da

not

hlaeux

die

zuho!

ACCENT

Aeu reek hauux da hlaeux zuho!

person bad that not die ACCENT

"Why hasn't the bad man died yet?" (Chinese: 那个坏人怎么还没死呢！)

Hou

I

da

not

laeis

see

meshes

anything

zunex!

ACCENT

Hou da laeis meshes zunex!

I not see anything ACCENT

"I haven't seen anything!" (Chinese: 我什么都没看见呢)

【rus，呢】

This word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,

Hwanneix

today

na

he

da

not

buuen

come

rus.

ACCENT

Hwanneix na da buuen rus.

today he not come ACCENT

"He won't come today." (Chinese: 今天他不来呢)

Fa

we

neix

this

zuu

one

tienx

fish's name

zans

up

zuu

one

tienx

fish's name

luei,

down

da

not

laeis

see

rus.

ACCENT

Fa neix zuu tienx zans zuu tienx luei, da laeis rus.

we this one {fish's name} up one {fish's name} down not see ACCENT

"(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see." (Chinese: 我们这鲩鱼一下游上，一下游下，没看见呢)

Interrogative mood

There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".

【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】

These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,

Meuu

you

da

not

hei

go

vuek

do

gong

work

hos?

Q

Meuu da hei vuek gong hos?

you not go do work Q

"Don't you go to work?" (Chinese: 你不去干活吗？)

Neix

this

man

is

guu meuu

yours

os?

Q

Neix man {guu meuu} os?

this is yours Q

"Is this yours?" (Chinese: 这是你的吗？)

Meuu

You

beuu

come back

ngop

think

dhang

face

hou

my

vi

ACCENT

zuumos?

Q

Meuu beuu ngop dhang hou vi zuumos?

You {come back} think face my ACCENT Q

"You came back (because) you are thinking of me?" (Chinese: 你回来是因为想我吗？)

【huux，hauux，呢，呀】

These words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,

Meuu

you

caty

buy

gong

stuff

meshes

what

huux?

Q

Meuu caty gong meshes huux?

you buy stuff what Q

"What do you buy?" (Chinese: 你买什么东西呢？)

Meuu

you

uuras

who

hauux?

Q

Meuu uuras hauux?

you who Q

"Who are you?" (Chinese: 你是谁？)

【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】

These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,

Gha

we

uengxtoengs

everyone

kweis

AUX

caep

carry by hands

cas

or

caem

carry or shoulders

nix?

Q

Gha uengxtoengs kweis caep cas caem nix?

we everyone AUX {carry by hands} or {carry or shoulders} Q

"Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?" (Chinese: 咱们大家要挑还是抬呢？)

Neix

this

guu asras

whose

yax?

Q

Neix {guu asras} yax?

this whose Q

"Whose is this?" (Chinese: 这是谁的呀？)

【zuuras/cuusras，吗】

These words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,

Hwanneix

today

hou

I

uengx

and

na

he

kweis

auxiliary

hei

go,

Damxax,

Sanya

meuu

you

loms

again

da

not

hei

go

zuuras?

Q

Hwanneix hou uengx na kweis hei Damxax, meuu loms da hei zuuras?

today I and he auxiliary go, Sanya you again not go Q

"Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?" (Chinese: 今天我和他要去三亚，难道你又不去吗？)

Kun

they

uengxtoengs

everyone

vuek

do

gong,

work

meuu

you

oms

but

da

not

vuek

do

cuusras?

Q

Kun uengxtoengs vuek gong, meuu oms da vuek cuusras?

they everyone do work you but not do Q

"Everyone is working, but why aren't you?" (Chinese: 他们一起干活，难道你不干吗？)

【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】

These words express a possibility, e.g.,

Na

he

buuen

come

zuurasve?

Q

Na buuen zuurasve?

he come Q

"Did he come?" (Chinese: 他来了吧？)

meuu

you

bhaeis

already

cuis

burn

ang

field

vixbas?

Q

meuu bhaeis cuis ang vixbas?

you already burn field Q

"Did you already burn the field?" (Chinese: 你烧山栏地了吗？)

meuu

you

kweis

FUT

hei

go

bas?

Q

meuu kweis hei bas?

you FUT go Q

"Are you going to go?" (Chinese: 你要去吗？)

Imperative mood

There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".

【as，吧，啊】

This word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,

Meuuda

you

dzueis

look

gas

horse

fa

we

as!

IMP

Meuuda dzueis gas fa as!

you look horse we IMP

"Look at our horses!" (Chinese: 你们看我们的马吧！)

Goms

then

dhonghauux

like that

as！

IMP

Goms dhonghauux as！

then {like that} IMP

"That's it!" (Chinese: 就那样吧！)

【bas，啊，吧】

This word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,

Meuu

you

dheuu

take

bas!

IMP

Meuu dheuu bas!

you take IMP

"Take it!" (Chinese: 你拿吧！)

Duuengx

give

hou

me

zuu

one

hom

CLF

ghaeix

cucurbita gourd

bas!

IMP

Duuengx hou zuu hom ghaeix bas!

give me one CLF {cucurbita gourd} IMP

"Give me a gourd!" (Chinese: 给我一个葫芦瓜吧！)

【bhislo，咯】

This word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,

Vuek

do

dzuuns

quickly

bhislo!

IMP

Vuek dzuuns bhislo!

do quickly IMP

"Do it quickly!" (Chinese: 快做咯！)

Hansneix

now

bhaeis

already

zaux

have

caqias

script

gha

we

Hlai,

Li,

uengxtoengs

everyone

guulax

should

tuuen

out.

kaux

strength

o

learn

bhislo!

IMP

Hansneix bhaeis zaux caqias gha Hlai, uengxtoengs guulax tuuen kaux o bhislo!

now already have script we Li, everyone should out. strength learn IMP

"Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!" (Chinese: 现在已经有咱们黎族文字，大家应该要努力学习咯！)

Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,

Meuu

You

hluumsghweuu

NEG-know

mos？

Q

Neix

This

man

is

caqias

script

Hlai

Li

bhislo!

ACCENT

Meuu hluumsghweuu mos？ Neix man caqias Hlai bhislo!

You NEG-know Q This is script Li ACCENT

"Don't you know? This is Li people's script!" (Chinese: 你不知道吗？这就是黎族文字呀！)

【res，吧】

The usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,

Meuuda

you

dzuuns

quickly

lax

eat

res!

IMP

Meuuda dzuuns lax res!

you quickly eat IMP

"Come on, eat quickly!" (Chinese: 你们快吃吧！)

Hluet

enter

buuen

come

res!

IMP

Hluet buuen res!

enter come IMP

"Come on in!" (Chinese: 进来吧！)

Exclamatory mood

There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,

Meuu

you

rien

say

dhiu

right

dhat

very

ho!

EXCM

Meuu rien dhiu dhat ho!

you say right very EXCM

"You're right!" (Chinese: 你说对极了！)

Yous

don't

taeixtoengs

fight each other

a!

EXCM

Yous taeixtoengs a!

don't {fight each other} EXCM

"Don't fight!" (Chinese: 别打架了！)

Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,

O!

EXCM

Pasceuus

guy

hauux

that

hleny

good

dhat

very

o!

EXCM

O! Pasceuus hauux hleny dhat o!

EXCM guy that good very EXCM

"Ah! That young man is great!" (Chinese: 啊！那小伙子好极了！)

Aei!

EXCM

Bhaeis

already

poens

break

he.

ACCENT

Aei! Bhaeis poens he.

EXCM already break ACCENT

"Oh! It's broken." (Chinese: 唉！已经破了。)

Aiho!

EXCM

Cok

pain

baisias

very much

ho!

EXCM

Aiho! Cok baisias ho!

EXCM pain {very much} EXCM

"Oh! It's painful!" (Chinese: 哎哟！痛极了！)

Onomatopoeic words

^[35][36]

Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,

Aidza!

Ouch!

Cok

Pain

raeis

intestines

ha!

ACCENT

Aidza! Cok raeis ha!

Ouch! Pain intestines ACCENT

"Oh dear! What stomach pains!" (Chinese: 哎呀！肚子疼啊！)

Aiho!

Ouch!

Cok

Pain

baisias

very much

ho!

ACCENT

Aiho! Cok baisias ho!

Ouch! Pain {very much} ACCENT

"Oh, what great pain!" (Chinese: 哎哟，痛极了！)

Ihyos!

Ah!

Noms

River

bhaeis

already

long

big

bhe!

ACCENT

Ihyos! Noms bhaeis long bhe!

Ah! River already big ACCENT

"Yo! The water has gone up!" (Chinese: 哟！水涨了！)

Isdzos!

Mmm!

Neix

This

man

is

meshes?

what

Isdzos! Neix man meshes?

Mmm! This is what

"Oh, what is this?" (Chinese: 哟，这是什么？)

However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,

Euu,

Yes,

dhonghauux

that

 

(is)

bhe!

ACCENT

Euu, dhonghauux {} bhe!

Yes, that (is) ACCENT

"Yes, just like that!" (Chinese: 唉，是那样！)

Na

He

bhaeis

already

euu

agree

cas

or

da?

not

Na bhaeis euu cas da?

He already agree or not

"Did he already agree or not?" (Chinese: 他唉（答应）了吗？)

Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,

Hluuek'ueng

Girl

raeux

laugh

hihi

ONOMATOPOEIA

dhuus

in

hauux.

there

Hluuek'ueng raeux hihi dhuus hauux.

Girl laugh ONOMATOPOEIA in there

"The girl laughed there." (Chinese: 姑娘在那里嘻嘻地笑)

Fas

sky

fun

rain

fosfos

ONOMATOPOEIA

bhe.

ACCENT

Fas fun fosfos bhe.

sky rain ONOMATOPOEIA ACCENT

"It is raining." (Chinese: 天哗哗地下雨了)

Gaet

Frog (with-long-legs)

fan

then

loms

again

roeng,

call

"Beets!

ONOMATOPOEIA

Beets!

ONOMATOPOEIA

Beets!"

ONOMATOPOEIA

Gaet fan loms roeng, "Beets! Beets! Beets!"

{Frog (with-long-legs)} then again call ONOMATOPOEIA ONOMATOPOEIA ONOMATOPOEIA

"The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!" (Chinese: 长腿蛙又叫，"别！别！别")

More onomatopoeic words below:

Birds	catcatscat, "鸟叫声; bird"; hwaxhwax, "鸟叫声"; jitjit, "喳喳（鸟叫声）" aekk/aekaek, "乌鸦的叫声，crow"; guxguguxgus, "布谷鸟的叫声"; gaengxgoeng, "冈工（鸟叫声）"; zatzat, "麻雀叫声"; aepaep, "鸭叫声，duck" weepweep, "母鸡叫声"; gokgok, "母鸡叫小鸡的声音"; goksguudheek, "母鸡下蛋的叫声" jiepp, "小鸡叫声"
Four-legged animal	bhesbhes, "黄牛的叫声，cow"; uungas, "（牛）叫；牛叫声"; hexhex, "羊叫声，goat"; ixhes, "马叫声，horse"; vuns, "狗叫，吠"; kuek, "（麂子）叫"; mieuxmieux, "咪咪（猫叫声）"; nyaeuxnyaeux, "猫叫声"
Insect	nongxniengx, "蝉叫声"; hwexhwex, "蝉叫声" rixrix, "蟋蟀鸣叫声" guuroks, "一种青蛙"（guuroks 像它的叫声）"
Sounds of nature or action	bhoengs, "当当（打锣声）"; bhopp, "东西落地声"; bloks, "小石头或青蛙落水声"; blongx, "扑通（重物落地或落水声）"; ceepp, "脚步声"; blus, "扑通（落水声）"; dongdong, "咚咚（打鼓声）"; fittfitt, "哭泣声"; gakgak, "笑声"

Phrases

The construction of phrases and their basic rules

^[37][38]

There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.

Coordinative phrases

The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.

父

bais

mother

母

pas

father

父 母

bais pas

mother father

"parents"

鸡

kai

chicken

和

ku/uengx

and

鸭

eps

duck

鸡 和 鸭

kai ku/uengx eps

chicken and duck

"chicken and duck"

Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.

又打又骂

taeix

beat

loms

and

cas

scold

taeix loms cas

beat and scold

"beat and scold"

又酸又辣

fas

sour

hloeis

and

ghety

hot

fas hloeis ghety

sour and hot

"sour and hot"

However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.

往

hei

go

往

hei

go

返

luueng

back

返

luueng

back

往 往 返 返

hei hei luueng luueng

go go back back

"go back and forth"

红

kiu

green

红

kiu

green

绿

ghaens

red

绿

ghaens

red

红 红 绿 绿

kiu kiu ghaens ghaens

green green red red

"green and red"

Attribute phrases

The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.

Noun as the head word

Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.

Noun (the head word) + noun

猪

aek

meat

肉

bou

pig

猪 肉

aek bou

meat pig

"pork"

牛

hau

horn

角

duis

water buffalo

牛 角

hau duis

horn {water buffalo}

"buffalo's horn"

Noun + adjective

noms

water

ghan

cold

noms ghan

water cold

"cold water"

veengs

shirt/top

baen

new

veengs baen

shirt/top new

"new shirt/top"

The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,

enyx

small

veengs

shirt/top

enyx veengs

small shirt/top

"kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)"

enyx

small

duis

water buffalo

enyx duis

small {water buffalo}

"calf (young water buffalo)"

enyx

small

dziengx

finger

enyx dziengx

small finger

"little finger (pinkie)"

Noun + verb

fok

place

gaux

sleep

fok gaux

place sleep

"a place for sleeping"

daty

bird

bheny

fly

daty bheny

bird fly

"(a) flying bird(s)"

Noun + pronoun

pashlaus

older brother

hou

my

pashlaus hou

{older brother} my

"my older brother"

blongs

house

hauux

that

blongs hauux

house that

"that house"

Number + classifier + noun (the head word)

The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.

fus

three

zuen

CL

aeudza

old man

fus zuen aeudza

three CL {old man}

"three old men"

hlaus

two

hom

CL

dzuuem

egg

hlaus hom dzuuem

two CL egg

"two eggs"

Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese

Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,

Noun + noun (the head word)

Dongxgoknaengsmiens

China

 

people

Dongxgoknaengsmiens

China people

"Chinese people" Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 1 word(s) in line 1, 2 word(s) in line 2 (help);

Adjective + noun (the head word)

hiuxdius

superior

odex

student

hiuxdius odex

superior student

"superior student"

Verb + noun (the head word)

goeisgiet

resolve

muixdhoeis

problem

goeisgiet muixdhoeis

resolve problem

"resolving (the) problem"

Verb as the head word

The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,

Adverb + verb

da

not

oep

love/like

da oep

not love/like

"don't like"

bhaeis

already

lax

eat

bhaeis lax

already eat

"already ate"

yous

Don't

rien

say

yous rien

Don't say

"don't say"

naeus

just

buuen

come

naeus buuen

just come

"just came"

ais

not willing to

lax

eat

ais lax

{not willing to} eat

"not willing to eat"

Adjective + verb

dzuuns

quick

rien

say

dzuuns rien

quick say

"(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it)

hleny

good

lax

eat

hleny lax

good eat

good (to) eat" (it means delicious)

gin

hurry

lax

eat

gin lax

hurry eat

"busy eating"

Noun + verb

cai

wood

vuek

make

cai vuek

wood make

"made of wood"

uuhaux

tomorrow

hei

go

uuhaux hei

tomorrow go

"(will) go tomorrow"

Verb + verb (the head word)

oep

like

lax

eat

oep lax

like eat

"like to eat"

hei

go

dzok

steal

hei dzok

go steal

"go (and) steal"

gaux

lie down

dzueis

look

gaux dzueis

{lie down} look

"reading lying down"

Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective

dais dais fei= fei dais dais

slow slow walk

"慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)

dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns

quick quick read

"快快读，read quickly"

hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny

good good say

"好好说，say (it) nicely"

liloek vuek= vuek liloek

dark do

"漆黑做，do (it in) darkness"

Pronoun + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + number

dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux

like that sew

"那样缝，sew like that"

dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?

how do

"怎么做？How is it to be done?"

qiras hei? = hei qiras?

When go

"何时走？When (is it time to) go?"

Number + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + number

zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis

one classifier go

"去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)

fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei

three classifier beat

"打三下，beat (something) three times"

zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx

one classifier one classifier plant

"一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"

zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms

one classifier one classifier eat

"一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time"

Adjective as the head word

The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,

Adjective + adjective (the head word)

hleny

good

coem

sharp

hleny coem

good sharp

"so sharp"

reek

bad

coem

sharp

reek coem

bad sharp

"not sharp"

Adverb + adjective (the head word)

duix

most

reek

bad

duix reek

most bad

"worst"

bhaeis

already

reek

bad

bhaeis reek

already bad

"already (gone) bad"

Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,

Adjective (the head word) + adverb

dzuuns

quick

dhat

very

dzuuns dhat

quick very

"very quick"

hleny

good

baisias

very much

hleny baisias

good {very much}

"very good"

Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,

Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun

vaet

poor

neix

this

vaet neix

poor this

"this poor"

long

big

dhongneix

like this

long dhongneix

big {like this}

"this big"

peek

high

dhonghauux

like that

peek dhonghauux

high {like that}

"that high"

Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun

bheeng

wide

ras?

How?

bheeng ras?

wide How?

"How wide?"

hloei

many/much

ras?

how?

hloei ras?

many/much how?

"How many/much?"

Adjective (the head word) + noun

long

big

nyiu

bull

long nyiu

big bull

"big as a bull"

bheeng

wide

laengs

sea

bheeng laengs

wide sea

"wide as the sea"

The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,

long

big

(dhong)

as

nyiu

bull

long (dhong) nyiu

big as bull

"big as a bull"

Verb-object phrases

The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,

Verb (the head word) + noun (object)

lax

eat

tax

rice

lax tax

eat rice

"eat rice (the meaning is to eat)"

dzueis

look

qias

book

dzueis qias

look book

"read book (the meaning is to read)"

Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)

dheuu

take

hauux

that

dheuu hauux

take that

"take that one"

ngwaety

call

meuu

you

ngwaety meuu

call you

"(I'll) call you"

bhiek

carry (something) on shoulder

meshes

what?

bhiek meshes

{carry (something) on shoulder} what?

"carry what"

Verb (the head word) + verb (object)

dhas

fear

rien

say

dhas rien

fear say

"怕说，fears to say"

auux

dare

vuuek

do

auux vuuek

dare do

"dare to do (something)"

Verb (the head word) + number (object)

caty

buy

zuu

one

hom

CL

caty zuu hom

buy one CL

"buy one"

lax

eat

fus

three

waeu

CL

lax fus waeu

eat three CL

"eat three bowls (of food)"

Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)

Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,

leis

thin

aeu

people

leis aeu

thin people

"(makes) people thin"

ghweis

fat

aeu

people

ghweis aeu

fat people

"(makes) people fat"

Complement phrases

The complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.

Verb-complement phrase

The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.

Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)

fei

walk

hluet

go into

fei hluet

walk {go into}

"walk in"

dheuu

take

buuen

come

dheuu buuen

take come

"plan to come"

Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)

lax

eat

kuuem

full

lax kuuem

eat full

"ate (until) full (stuffed)"

riemx

fix

hleny

good

riemx hleny

fix good

"fixed well"

roengx

cook

fui

cooked

roengx fui

cook cooked

"cooked thoroughly"

Verb (the head word) + number (complement)

fei

walk

zuu

one

guen

CL

fei zuu guen

walk one CL

"(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)

fun

run

ba

five

hwan

day

ba

five

cop

night

fun ba hwan ba cop

run five day five night

"(it) rained five days and five nights"

Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)

In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.

bhaeis

already

hlaeux

die

duis

water buffalo

he.

ACCENT

bhaeis hlaeux duis he.

already die {water buffalo} ACCENT

"The water buffalo already died."

Adjective-complement phrase

The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.

Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)

kaeix

cold

dhaens

as to

nyan

shiver

kaeix dhaens nyan

cold {as to} shiver

"(so) cold as to shiiver"

reek

bad

haeis

smell

dhaens

as to

asras

who

ruus

all

ais

not willing to

dheuu

take

reek haeis dhaens asras ruus ais dheuu

bad smell {as to} who all {not willing to} take

"(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)"

Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)

gheuu

thin

dhaens

as to

ghau

transparency

gheuu dhaens ghau

thin {as to} transparency

"(so) thin as to be transparent"

fui

cooked

dhaens

as to

ghaens

red

fui dhaens ghaens

cooked {as to} red

"(so) cooked (hot) as to become red"

Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)

long

big

fus

three

boux

CL/year

long fus boux

big three CL/year

"three years older"

hloei

many

zuu

one

hom

CL

hloei zuu hom

many one CL

"one more"

peek

high

zuutom

half

ghwous

head

peek zuutom ghwous

high half head

"a half-head taller"

Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)

In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.

Long

big

hwoet

wind

bhe！

ACCENT

Long hwoet bhe！

big wind ACCENT

"The wind (is) strong!"

Cok

hurt

bok

stomach

dhat

very

lo！

ACCENT

Cok bok dhat lo！

hurt stomach very ACCENT

"A stomachache! (very painful)"

Subject-predicate phrases

This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.

Wenysnaeis

no

aeu

people

rien

say

na

he

reek.

bad

Wenysnaeis aeu rien na reek.

no people say he bad

"No one said he (is) bad."

Uengxtoengs

everyone

ruus

all

rien

say

gong

stuff

neix

this

fas.

sour

Uengxtoengs ruus rien gong neix fas.

everyone all say stuff this sour

"Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour."

Daty

bird

bheny

fly

lo.

ACCENT

Daty bheny lo.

bird fly ACCENT

"Birds have flown (away)."

Na

he

buuen

come

lo.

ACCENT

Na buuen lo.

he come ACCENT

"He has come."

The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:

Subject-predicate phrases		Attribute phrases
Daty bheny bhe. birds fly accent	鸟飞了 The birds have flown away.	daty bheny birds fly	飞的鸟 the flying birds
Aeu buuen he. people come accent	人家来了 People have come.	aeu buuen people come	来的人 the people (who) have come
qi coem duuek time fruit ripe	果子成熟的时候 time to harvest fruit	coem duuek fruit ripens	熟的果子 ripened fruit
cai peek baisias tree tall very much	树高得很 The tree (is) very tall.	cai peek tree tall	高的树 tall tree

Sentence construction and the basic rules

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在河边的房子

blongs

house

dhuus

in/exist

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

hauux

that

blongs dhuus ngaeix noms hauux

house in/exist edge/bank river that

"the house that (is) on the bank of the river"

我的哥哥和你的弟弟

pashlaus

older brother

hou

my

uengx

and

pasghueng

younger brother

meuu

your

pashlaus hou uengx pasghueng meuu

{older brother} my and {younger brother} your

my older brother and your younger brother

The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,

那房子在那条河边

Blongs

house

hauux

that

dhuus

in/exist

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

hauux.

that

Blongs hauux dhuus ngaeix noms hauux.

house that in/exist edge/bank river that

"That house (is) on the bank of that river."

我的哥哥和你的弟弟都是工人

Pashlaus

older brother

hou

my

uengx

and

pasghueng

younger brother

meuu

your

ngan

also

gaengxnaengs.

worker

Pashlaus hou uengx pasghueng meuu ngan gaengxnaengs.

{older brother} my and {younger brother} your also worker

"My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers."

The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence. These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.

Subject 主语			Predicate 谓语
			Verb 述语			Object 宾语
(Attribute) （定语）	Head word 中心语	Attribute 定语	Adverbial 状语	Head word 中心语	(Adverbial) （状语）	(Attribute) （定语）	Head word 中心语	Attribute 定语
					Complement 补语

Subjects

The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.

Predicates

The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.

Passive voice

In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,

鸡被狐狸咬了

Kai

Chicken

ghoems

by

dauxmuty

fox

gaeny

bite

bhe.

ACCENT

Kai ghoems dauxmuty gaeny bhe.

Chicken by fox bite ACCENT

"A chicken was bit by a fox."

那村子被火烧了

Bhous

Village

hauux

that

ghoems

by

fei

fire

cuis

burn

lo.

ACCENT

Bhous hauux ghoems fei cuis lo.

Village that by fire burn ACCENT

"That village was burned by fire."

Objects

An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,

Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)

The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,

母亲给她一条裙子

Baisdza

Mother

duuengx

give

na

her

lax

auxiliary word

zuu

one

ruet

CL

riens.

skirt

Baisdza duuengx na lax zuu ruet riens.

Mother give her {auxiliary word} one CL skirt

"Mother gave her a skirt."

我教你黎话

Hou

I

dun

teach

meuu

you

lax

auxiliary word

tun

language

Hlai.

Li

Hou dun meuu lax tun Hlai.

I teach you {auxiliary word} language Li

"I teach you the Li lauguage."

哥哥给弟弟一个荔枝

Pashlaus

older brother

duuengx

give

pasghueng

younger brother

dheuu

auxiliary

zuu

one

hom

CL

zuucoeis.

litchi

Pashlaus duuengx pasghueng dheuu zuu hom zuucoeis.

{older brother} give {younger brother} auxiliary one CL litchi

"The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)."

The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,

我买龙眼给你

Hou

I

caty

buy

coembhans

longan (fruit)

duuengx

give

meuu.

you

Hou caty coembhans duuengx meuu.

I buy {longan (fruit)} give you

"I bought longan (to) give to you."

母亲挑水给弟弟

Baisdza

Mother

caep

carry

noms

water

duuengx

give

pasghueng.

younger brother

Baisdza caep noms duuengx pasghueng.

Mother carry water give {younger brother}

"The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother."

姐姐煮饭给妹妹

Hluuekkauus

Older sister

roengx

cook

tax

rice

duuengx

give

baisghueng.

younger sister

Hluuekkauus roengx tax duuengx baisghueng.

{Older sister} cook rice give {younger sister}

"The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister."

Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,

他给我衣服

Na

He

duuengx

give

veengs

shirt/top

duuengx

give

hou.

me

Na duuengx veengs duuengx hou.

He give shirt/top give me

"He gave a shirt to me."

父亲不给我糖

Pasdza

Father

da

not

duuengx

give

nomstaengs

sugar

duuengx

give

dhes.

me

Pasdza da duuengx nomstaengs duuengx dhes.

Father not give sugar give me

"(My) Father did not give me sugar."

When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,

你给他

Meuu

You

duuengx

give

na

him

dheuu.

auxiliary word

Meuu duuengx na dheuu.

You give him {auxiliary word}

"You give it to him."

这把小刀给你

Zuu

One

pienx

CL

enyx

small

gas

knife

neix

this

duuengx

give

meuu

you

lax.

auxiliary word

Zuu pienx enyx gas neix duuengx meuu lax.

One CL small knife this give you {auxiliary word}

"This small knife (was) given (to) you."

这只鸡给你

Zuu

One

lang

CL

kai

chicken

neix

this

duuengx

give

meuu

you

lax.

auxiliary word

Zuu lang kai neix duuengx meuu lax.

One CL chicken this give you {auxiliary word}

"This chicken (was) given (to) you."

Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)

Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,

Hou reengs meuu lax.

I move you auxiliary word (help)

"我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move."

Meuu laix na lax.

You plow him auxiliary word (help)

"你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow."

Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.

Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)

"母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."

The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,

Taeix dhes lax tax.

Put me auxiliary word (help) rice

"帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice."

Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.

I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable

"我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."

Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.

He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower

"他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers."

Complement

There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,

Sequential complement

Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.

Snake by hit die accent

"蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."

Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.

I already eat full accent

"我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."

Na lax tax kuuem he.

He eat rice full accent

"他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full."

If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,

Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.

He pull preposition go out sweat

"他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."

Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.

Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that

"水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."

Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.

shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear

"这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."

Directional complement

The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,

fei buuen walk come 走来, walk and come	fei beuu walk come back 走回去, walk back	fei dhaens walk arrive 走到, walk to	fei kaen walk go up 走上, walk up	fei hluet walk go into 走进, walk into
fei hei walk go 走去, walk and go	fei luueng walk go back 走回来, walk back	fei dhuas walk pass 走过, walk through	fei luei walk go down 走下, walk down	fei tuuen walk go out 走出, walk out

a. Directional complement without an object

Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,

Na qieus buuen bhe.

He bring come accent

"他拿来了，He brought something here."

Duis ghoux hei lo!

Water buffalo run go accent

"水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."

Aeudza buuen luueng bhe

Old man come go back accent

"老人回来了，The old man came back."

Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe

Everyone carry go come back accent

"大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."

Na ais caus. luei ba.

He is not willing to come down down accent

"他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."

Na ghoux tuuen hos?

He run go out accent of question

"他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?"

b. Directional complement with an object

These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,

Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.

Rabbit jump over one classifier stream

"兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."

Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.

Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that

"大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."

Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.

Mouse already run go into hole accent

"老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole."

Quantitative complement

The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,

a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)

Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.

I and you go one classifier

"我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."

Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.

Chicken already crow three classifier accent

"鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times."

b. Verb + (number + time classifier)

Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.

We already learn one year/classifier accent

"我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."

Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.

He already stay three day accent

"他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."

Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.

He go back home have two month accent

"他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now."

c. Adjective + (number + classifier)

Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.

House this high/tall than house that a little bit

"这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."

Waeu neix hloei fus hom.

Bowl this more three classifier

"这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."

Attribute

The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,

Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)

aek duis

meat water buffalo

"牛肉，beef"

feekx hweek

skin banana

"香蕉皮，banana peel"

coem coeis

fruit litchi

"荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"

dzuuem kai

egg chicken

"鸡蛋，chicken egg"

Na kueng rien tun Hlai.

He know say/speak language/word Li

"他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."

Neix man bheuu cai.

This is leaf tree

"这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf."

Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)

tau loek

pot black

"黑锅，black pot"

zuu fans veengs kaeu

one classifier shirt/top white

"一件白上衣，one white shirt"

noms neix noms ghan.

water this water cold

"这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water."

Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)

Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.

We Li people have script self accent

"咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."

Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.

Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya

"他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya."

Number (attribute) + noun (head word)

Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.

One classifier man in house that

"一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."

Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.

Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very

"这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."

Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)

Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.

In/at there no place lie down

"在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."

Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.

Even wild boar run also shoot right

"连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."

Neix gong lax fa.

This stuff eat our

"这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ."

Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)

veengs dhuus blongs hauux

shirt/top in house that

"在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"

hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux

girl just come that

"那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"

zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem

one classifier water buffalo eat grass full

"一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"

qi meuu buuen hauux

time you come that

"你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came"

Adverbial

The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,

Adverbs as adverbials

Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Na oms da buuen zo.

He still not come accent

"他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."

Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.

Today sky mosthot accent

"今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."

Qi lax tax yous rien tun!

Time eat rice don't say/speak word

"吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"

Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.

One classifier man this not beautiful

"这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful."

Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Na buuen dhat.

He come really

"他真的来了，He really came."

Na vuek luueng.

He do back

"他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."

Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.

Stuff this good really

"这东西真好，This is really good stuff."

Maeis neix dheeng baisias.

Sugarcane this sweet very

"这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet."

Adjectives as adverbials

Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,

reek coem

bad/not so sharp

"不锋利，not so sharp"

Gas neix hleny coem hos！

Long knife this good/so sharp accent!

"这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"

Dais fei as, baisdza！

Slow walk accent, old lady!

"慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."

Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe！

You quick come accent

"你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come."

If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,

Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！

You come quick quick accent

"你快快来吧，(You) come double quick."

Verbs as adverbials

When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,

Na ngais rien.

He/she cry say

"她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."

Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?

You steal/secretly look what

"你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"

Na oep lax zuuyunx.

He like eat coconut

"他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts."

Nouns as adverbials

When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,

Neix man cai vuek

This is tree make

"这是木制的，This is made of wood."

Meuu ashaux hei hyos?

You tomorrow go question accent

"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?"

Pronouns as adverbials

When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,

Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.

He like this say = He say like this

"他这样说，He said (it) like this."

Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras

work this how do = work this do how

"这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"

Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras

When arrive = arrive when

"何时到？When (will he) arrive?"

However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,

Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.

Region this wide/vast like that/so

"这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."

Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.

One classififer man this good/kind like that/so

"这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."

Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?

One classififer rope this long how?

"这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?"

Prepositional phrases as adverbials

When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,

Ia ba gaenys

by dog bite

"被狗咬，bit by a dog"

dheuu na taeix

by him hit

"被他打，hit by him"

When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,

tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous

From that one classifier road go up mountain

"从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"

toek tuuen deuu cai

drop from on tree

"从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"

dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs

at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home

"在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."

ku na rien = rien ku na

to him say = say to him

"对他说，say to him"

uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu

With you go = go with you

"同你去，(I'll) go with you."

meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.

You play with/and him = You with/and him play

"你和他玩，You play with him."

Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,

Before the adjective head word:

Meuu bhi dhes peek.

You than/compare me tall

"你比我高，You (are) taller than me."

After the adjective head word:

Meuu peek dhuas na.

You tall than him

"你高过他，You (are) taller than him."

Ba long dhuas mieux.

Dog big than cat

"狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat."

Before or after the adjective head word:

hloek bhaen laengs

deep like/as sea

"像海一样深，as deep as the sea."

enyx dhong guty

small like/as needle

"像针一样小，as small as a needle."

Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.

Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck

"这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."

Sentence patterns and types

^[41][42]

Sentence patterns and their basic rules

Simple sentence

The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,

Subject-predicate sentences

Fas fun lo.

sky rain accent

"天要下雨了，It's going to rain."

Na hei bhe.

He go accent

"他去了，He went."

Enyxlauux raeu he.

Child laugh accent

"小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed."

The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,

(subject + predicate + object)

Hou lax tax.

I eat rice

"我吃饭，I eat rice."

(subject + predicate + complement)

Na qieus buuen bhe.

He bring come accent

"他拿来了，He brought (it with him)."

(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)

Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.

Child already walk into house

"小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house."

No subject sentences

This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,

Tuut dhoei bhe.

Break rope accent

"断绳了，The rope (is) broken."

Hloei aeu dhat.

Many people really/very

"人真多，(There are) so many people."

Hlaeux hlai bhe.

Die fish accent

"鱼死了，The fish died."

One word sentence

Asras？

Who？

"谁？Who?"

Ahyo!

Oh my!

"哎哟！Oh my!"

A: "Meuu kweis da kweis？" B: "Kweis."

    You     be willing to  NEG be willing to        be willing to

A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'

A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意

Compound sentences

There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,

Coordinate compound sentences

The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.

The parallel relationship

Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.

Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.

I will go have a meeting he will go field

"我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."

Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,

Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense

zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.

coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense

"香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."

Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,

He/she know how to do shirt do skirt

hoen vuek ang vuek dax.

know how to do hilly field do plain field

"她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."

The progressive relationship

The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.

Sky already late he still not come back

"天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."

Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.

Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent

"天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."

Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.

You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China

"你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."

Na kueng rien tun Hlai,

He know how to speak language/word Li

kueng rien koms tun Moei.

know how to speak also/even language/word Han

"他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."

hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.

I not only read finished, but also write finished

"我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."

c. The optional relationship

The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.

Old brother your come, or younger brother your come

"你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."

Lax man cuusnaus lax tax？

Eat potato or eat rice

"吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"

Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.

You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me

"你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me."

Subordinate compound sentences

The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.

The transitional relationship

Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.

Yesterday I go to him, but he go street

"昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."

Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.

She want sing a song, but fear shame

"她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."

Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.

Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home

"要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."

The conditional relationship

Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,

Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.

no matter what he say how, I also go

"不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."

Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.

If he not come, I then go find him

"如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."

Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.

If have/there is rice, I then eat

"如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."

Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.

If he agree, you then tell to me accent

"如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me."

Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,

Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.

Out strength do work, must have money have money

"努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."

The causal relationship

Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.

Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness

"天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."

Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.

I not go because I sick accent

"我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."

Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.

I come back take rope, because break totally

"我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."

Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,

Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.

Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give

"能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."

When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,

Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.

Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high

"因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."

Compressed compound sentences

In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.

Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.

I tell you do what then do what

"我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."

Hou kweis rien oms dhas.

I want say but fear

"我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."

Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.

He more... think more... happy

"他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."

Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.

Pig this more... feed more... fat

"这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."

Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.

He more... do more... fast

"他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."

Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.

He more... come more... many

"人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more."

Sentence types and their basic rules

^[43][44]

According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.

Declarative sentence

Affirmative sentence

Hou kweis hei ang.

I will go hilly field

"我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."

Neix man veengs na.

This is shirt/top her/his

"这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top."

Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,

Neix veengs na.

This shirt/top her/his

"这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top."

Negative sentence

Neix ghwaix veengs na.

This is not shirt/top her/his

"这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."

Na da buuen zo.

He not come accent

"他还没来呢，He has not come yet."

Interrogative sentence

Using interrogative pronouns

There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,

Neix veengs asras?

This shirt/top who?

"这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"

Uuras uengx hou hei?

Who with me go?

"谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"

Neix man meshes?

This is what?

"这是什么？What is this?"

Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?

Do how just right?

"怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"

Meuu hei zok ras?

You go to/toward where?

"你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"

Na qiras buuen?

He when come?

"他何时来？When (will) he come?"

zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?

Have how many classifier sick

"有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?"

Using interrogative accent words

These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".

Ghwaix na bas?

Is not him accent

"不是他吧？It is not him, right?"

Neix guu meuu hos?

This belong to you accent

"这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"

Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?

You already eat rice accent

"你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?"

(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

Using negation words ("da")

Meuu kweis hei da?

You will go NEG?

"你要去吗？Won't you go?"

Meuu kweis da?

You be willing to NEG?

"你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"

Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?

You want see movie NEG?

"你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"

Gong neix hleny da?

Stuff this good NEG?

"这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?"

The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,

Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?

You want take or not?

"你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"

Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?

You already eat or not?

"你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"

Veengs neix hleny cas da?

shirt/top this good or not?

"这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?"

Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")

The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,

Meuu dheuu cuus ais?

You want or don't want?

"你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"

Fa caem cuus bhiek?

We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?

"我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"

Dhat cas tuas?

Genuine/real/true or false/fake?

"真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"

Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,

Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？

He go or I go?

"他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?"

Imperative sentence

When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,

Buuen!

Come

"来！Come！"

Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.

tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent

"明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"

Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!

Everyone quickly come accent

"大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!"

(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.

Yous vuek!

Don't do

"别做！Quit doing that!"

Exclamatory sentence

There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.

An accented word in one word sentence

Euu! Hauux bhe!

Yes! That is (it)!

"嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"

Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?

Oh my! How do just/then good

"哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"

An accented word follows one word or one phrase

Cok ho!

Pain accent

"疼啊！Ouch!"

Hleny hloei ho!

good/so many accent

"好多啊！So many!"

An accented word at the end of a sentence

Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!

Oh my! Poor accent

"哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"

Tau bhaeis poens a!

Pot already break accent

"锅已经破了！The pot broke!"

Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!

Vegetable this good eat accent

"这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"

Noms neix ghan a!

Water this cold accent

"这水凉啊！This water is cold!"

(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

Influence of Chinese grammar

^[45][46]

Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.

Attribute phrases

Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
三 fus three 只 lang CLF 野猪 laty boar 三 只 野猪 fus lang laty three CLF boar "three boars"	野猪 laty boar 三 fus three 只 lang CLF 野猪 三 只 laty fus lang boar three CLF "three boars"
一 zuu one 个 hom CLF 果子 coem fruit 一 个 果子 zuu hom coem one CLF fruit "one fruit"	果子 coem fruit 一 zuu one 个 hom CLF 果子 一 个 coem zuu hom fruit one CLF "one fruit"
两 hlaus two 条 dhanx CLF 竹子 roenx bamboo 两 条 竹子 hlaus dhanx roenx two CLF bamboo "two bamboo"	竹子 roenx bamboo 两 hlaus two 条 dhanx CLF 竹子 两 条 roenx hlaus dhanx bamboo two CLF "two bamboo"

When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
这一个枕头 zuu one hom CLF ngaen pillow neix DEM zuu hom ngaen neix one CLF pillow DEM "this pillow"	这 neix DEM 一 zuu one 个 hom CLF 枕头 ngaen pillow 这 一 个 枕头 neix zuu hom ngaen DEM one CLF pillow "this pillow"
那六件衣服 dom six fans CLF veengs shirt hauux DEM dom fans veengs hauux six CLF shirt DEM "these six shirts"	那 hauux DEM 六 dom six 件 fans CLF 衣服 veengs shirt 那 六 件 衣服 hauux dom fans veengs DEM six CLF shirt "these six shirts"
那七棵椰子树 tou seven kuuengx CLF zuuyunx coconut max DEM tou kuuengx zuuyunx max seven CLF coconut DEM "those seven coconut tree"	那 max DEM 七 tou seven 棵 kuuengx CLF 椰子树 zuuyunx coconut 那 七 棵 椰子树 max tou kuuengx zuuyunx DEM seven CLF coconut "those seven coconut tree"

When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
海南省 dengs province Haeisnaems Hainan dengs Haeisnaems province Hainan "Hainan province"	海南 Haeisnaems Hainan 省 dengs province 海南 省 Haeisnaems dengs Hainan province "Hainan province"
乐东县 gwaeis county Lokdhongs Ledong gwaeis Lokdhongs county Ledong "Ledong county"	乐东 Lokdhongs Ledong 县 gwaeis county 乐东 县 Lokdhongs gwaeis Ledong county "Ledong county"
抱由镇 dhiens township Bhausdzius Baoyou dhiens Bhausdzius township Baoyou "Baoyou township"	抱由 Bhausdzius Baoyou 镇 dhiens township 抱由 镇 Bhausdzius dhiens Baoyou township "Baoyou township"

Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,

新

dienx

new

中国

Dongxgok

China

新 中国

dienx Dongxgok

new China

"new China"

新

dienx

new

裙子

gun

skirt

新 裙子

dienx gun

new skirt

"new skirt"

大

dhuax

big

救星

giuscex

savior

大 救星

dhuax giuscex

big savior

"great savior"

However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,

新中国

Dongxgok

China

baen

new

Dongxgok baen

China new

"new China"

这是新裙子

neix

DEM.this

man

is

gun

skirt

baen.

new

neix man gun baen.

DEM.this is skirt new

"This is a new skirt."

大救星

giuscex

savior

long

big

giuscex long

savior big

"great savior"

Verb-object-complement phrases

When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
吃完饭 lax eat tax rice bhaeis finished lax tax bhaeis eat rice finished "finished eating"	吃 lax eat 完 bhaeis finished 饭 tax rice 吃 完 饭 lax bhaeis tax eat finished rice "finished eating"
做完工 vuek do gong work bhaeis finished vuek gong bhaeis do work finished "finished working"	做 vuek do 完 bhaeis finished 工 gong work 做 完 工 vuek bhaeis gong do finished work "finished working"
吃完酒 lax eat bhiengx rice wine bhaeis finished lax bhiengx bhaeis eat {rice wine} finished "finished drinking"	吃 lax eat 完 bhaeis finished 酒 bhiengx rice wine 吃 完 酒 lax bhaeis bhiengx eat finished {rice wine} "finished drinking"

Interrogative sentences

The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,

你

Meuu

You

去

hei

go

不

da

NEG

去？

hei?

go

你 去 不 去？

Meuu hei da hei?

You go NEG go

"Are you going?"

The possessive auxiliary word gaeis

The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,

北京

Bhakgengs

Beijing

的

gaeis

AUX.POSS

颐和园

Ihwashueis

the name of emperor's Summer Palace

北京 的 颐和园

Bhakgengs gaeis Ihwashueis

Beijing AUX.POSS {the name of emperor's Summer Palace}

"Beijing's Summer Palace"

海南

Haeisnaems

Hainan

的

gaeis

AUX.POSS

乐东

Lokdhongs

Ledong

县

gwaeis

township

海南 的 乐东 县

Haeisnaems gaeis Lokdhongs gwaeis

Hainan AUX.POSS Ledong township

"Hainan's Ledong township"

早晨

gaeusdhom

morning

的

gaeis

AUX.POSS

太阳

cahwan

sun

早晨 的 太阳

gaeusdhom gaeis cahwan

morning AUX.POSS sun

"the morning's sun"

References

1. Yuan 1994, pp. 56–57.
2. Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 91–92.
3. Peng, Min-Sheng; He, Jun-Dong; Liu, Hai-Xin; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2011-02-15). "Tracing the legacy of the early Hainan Islanders – a perspective from mitochondrial DNA". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11 (1): 46. Bibcode:2011BMCEE..11...46P. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-46. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 3048540. PMID 21324107.
4. Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 & Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1983). Liyu diaocha yanjiu 黎语调查研究. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe 中国社会科学出版社. p. 4.
5. Wen & Wen 2006.
6. Wen & Wen 2006, p. 332.
7. Wen & Wen 2006, p. 333.
8. Yuan 1994, pp. 58–61.
9. Wen & Wen 2009, p. 20.
10. Yuan 1994, pp. 61–62.
11. Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 96–99.
12. Yuan 1994, pp. 62–77.
13. Yuan 1994, pp. 70–71.
14. Wen & Wen 2006, p. 103.
15. Yuan 1994, pp. 71–77.
16. Yuan 1994, pp. 77–87.
17. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、107–109ページ。
18. 袁 1994、87–90頁。
19. Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1992)。Hlai Han Dictionary 黎汉词典。四川省成都: 四川民族出版社。ISBN 7540903023。
20. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、114～115頁。
21. 袁 1994、88～90頁。
22. 袁 1994、90–97頁。
23. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、120-122ページ。
24. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、252–54頁。
25. 袁 1994、97–101頁。
26. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、129–131ページ。
27. 袁 1994、101–108頁。
28. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、144–145ページ。
29. 袁 1994、108～1010頁。
30. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、137–139ページ。
31. 袁 1994、110-113頁。
32. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、151-152ページ。
33. 袁 1994、113–119頁。
34. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、158–160ページ。
35. 袁 1994、120頁。
36. ウェン＆ウェン 2006、165-66頁。
37. 袁 1994、121–130頁。
38. ウェン＆ウェン 2009、22–30ページ。
39. 袁 1994、132–151頁。
40. ウェン＆ウェン 2009、31–40ページ。
41. 袁 1994、152–157頁。
42. ウェン＆ウェン 2009、41–44ページ。
43. 袁 1994、158–161頁。
44. ウェン＆ウェン 2009、44–47頁。
45. 袁 1994、180–185頁。
46. ウェン＆ウェン 2009、47–51頁。

参考文献

• ミンイン・ウェン文明英;ジン・ウェン文京 (2006)。Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng 黎语基础教程。北京 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社。ISBN 9787811080018。
• ミンイン・ウェン文明英;ジン・ウェン文京 (2009)。Liyu Changpian Huayu Cailiaoji 黎语长篇话语資料集。北京 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社。ISBN 9787811086980。
• Zhongshu Yuan 苑中树 (1994)。ライ語文法の概要 黎语语法纲要。北京 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社。ISBN 7810018922。