Vagrancy
Condition of homelessness without regular employment or income

John Everett Millais' The Blind Girl, depicting vagrant musician
Look up vagrancy  or vagabond in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Feudal titles and status
Lord paramount / Territorial lord
Tenant-in-chief
Mesne lord
Lord of the manor / Overlord / Vogt / Liege lord
Esquire / Gentleman / Landed gentry
Franklin / Yeoman / Retinue
Husbandman
Free tenant
Domestic servant
Vagabond
Serf / Villein / Bordar / Cottar
Slave

Vagrancy is the condition of wandering homelessness without regular employment or income. Vagrants[a] usually live in poverty and support themselves by travelling while engaging in begging, scavenging, or petty theft. In Western countries, vagrancy was historically a crime punishable with forced labor, military service, imprisonment, or confinement to dedicated labor houses.

Both vagrant and vagabond ultimately derive from the Latin word vagari, meaning "to wander". The term vagabond and its archaic equivalent vagabone come from Latin vagabundus ("strolling about"). In Middle English, vagabond originally denoted a person without a home or employment.[2]

Historical views


Vagrants have been historically characterised as outsiders in settled, ordered communities: embodiments of otherness, objects of scorn or mistrust, or worthy recipients of help and charity.[citation needed]

Some ancient sources show vagrants as passive objects of pity, who deserve generosity and the gift of alms. Others show them as subversives, or outlaws, who make a parasitical living through theft, fear and threat.[citation needed]

Gyrovagues were itinerant monks of the early Middle Ages. Some fairy tales of medieval Europe have beggars cast curses on anyone who was insulting or stingy toward them. In Tudor England, some of those who begged door-to-door for "milk, yeast, drink, pottage" were thought to be witches.[3]

Many world religions, both in history and today, have vagrant traditions or make reference to vagrants. In Christianity, Jesus is shown in the Bible as having compassion for beggars, prostitutes, and the disenfranchised. The Catholic Church also teaches compassion for people living in vagrancy.[4] Vagrant lifestyles are seen in Christian movements, such as in the mendicant orders. Many still exist in places like Europe, Africa, and the Near East, as preserved by Gnosticism, Hesychasm, and various esoteric practices.[citation needed]

In some East Asian and South Asian countries, the condition of vagrancy has long been historically associated with the religious life, as described in the religious literature of Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Muslim Sufi traditions. Examples include sadhus, dervishes, bhikkhus, and the sramanic traditions generally.

In law

Vagabonds being arrested in 19th century France

Belgium

The Belgian Criminal Law had defined vagrants as lacking a stable residence, the necessary means to survive, and employment.[5] The Belgian Criminal Law of 1867 had high levels of recidivism, leading to questions concerning its effectiveness in combating vagrancy[5] From 27 November 1891, a vagabond could be jailed. Vagabonds, beggars and procurers were imprisoned in vagrancy prisons: Hoogstraten; Merksplas; and Wortel (Flanders). There, the prisoners had to work for their living by working on the land or in the prison. If the prisoners had earned enough money, then they could leave the "colony" (as it was called). On 12 January 1993, the Belgian vagrancy law was repealed.[6] At that time, 260 vagabonds still lived in the Wortel colony.

Denmark

In medieval times, vagabonds were controlled by an official called the Stodderkonge who was responsible for a town or district and expelled those without a permit. Their role eventually transferred to the police.

Germany

In Germany, according to the 1871 Penal Code (§ 361 des Strafgesetzbuches von 1871), vagabondage was among the grounds to confine a person to a labor house.[7][8]

In the Weimar Republic, the law against vagrancy was relaxed, but it became much more stringent in Nazi Germany, where vagrancy, together with begging, prostitution, and "work-shyness" (arbeitsscheu), was classified as "anti-social behavior" (Asoziale) and punishable by confinement to concentration camps.

Romania

Until July 2006, vagrancy was punishable with imprisonment between one month to 3 years, according to the article 327 on the Penal Code.[9][10]

Russia

Russian Empire

In the Russian Empire, the legal term "vagrancy" (Russian: бродяжничество, brodyazhnichestvo) was defined in a different way than in Western Europe (vagabondage in France, Landstreicherei in Germany). Russian law recognized one as a vagrant if he could not prove his own standing (title), or if he changed residence without a permission from authorities, rather than punishing loitering or absence of livelihood. Foreigners who had been twice expatriated with prohibition of return to the Russian Empire and were arrested in Russia again were also recognized as vagrants. Punishments were harsh: according to Ulozhenie, the legal code, a vagrant who could not elaborate on his kinship, standing, or permanent residence, or gave false evidence, was sentenced to a 4-year imprisonment and a subsequent exile to Siberia or another far-off province.

Soviet Union

In the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (1960) [ru], which came into force on 1 January 1961, systematic vagrancy (that which was identified more than once) was punishable by up to two years' imprisonment (section 209).[11]

This continued until 5 December 1991, when Section 209 was repealed and vagrancy ceased to be a criminal offense.[12]

Russian Federation

At present, vagrancy is not a criminal offence in Russia, but it is an offence for someone over 18 to induce a juvenile (one who has not reached that age) to vagrancy, according to Chapter 20, Section 151 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. The note, introduced by the Federal Law No. 162 of 8 December 2003, provides that the section does not apply, if such act is performed by a parent of the juvenile under harsh life circumstances due to the loss of livelihood or the absence of living place.

Mexico

In the early 1800s, Mexico's political leaders had to put together a "Vagrant Tribunal", defining vagrants as young men who were robust and able to work despite panhandling. These tribunals had become a necessity after President Vicente Guerrero abolished slavery in 1829, leaving Mexico without a constant supply of labor. Those who were punished under this system were either put in local jails for a short time or sent to armed forces. This system was abolished during the Mexican–American War to increase conscripts.[13]

Sweden and Finland

In premodern Sweden and Finland (under Swedish rule up to 1809), vagrancy was a crime, which could result in a sentence of forced labour or forced military service. There was a "legal protection" (Finnish: laillinen suojelu) obligation: those not part of the estates of the realm (nobility, clergy, burghers or land-owners) were obliged to be employed, or otherwise, they could be charged with vagrancy. Legal protection was mandatory already in medieval Swedish law, but Gustav I of Sweden began strictly enforcing this provision, applying it even when work was potentially available. In Finland, the legal protection provision was repealed in 1883; however, vagrancy still remained illegal, if connected with "immoral" or "indecent" behavior.[14] In 1936, a new law moved the emphasis from criminalization into social assistance. Forced labor sentences were abolished in 1971 and anti-vagrancy laws were repealed in 1987.[15]

United Kingdom

A woodcut from c. 1536 depicting a vagrant being punished in the streets in Tudor England
The Pass Room at Bridewell, c. 1808. At this time paupers from outside London apprehended by the authorities could be imprisoned for seven days before being sent back to their own parish.

The Ordinance of Labourers 1349 was the first major vagrancy law in England and Wales. The ordinance sought to increase the available workforce following the Black Death in England by making idleness (unemployment) an offence. A vagrant was a person who could work but chose not to, and, having no fixed abode or lawful occupation, begged. Vagrancy was punishable by human branding or whipping. Vagrants were distinguished from the impotent poor, who were unable to support themselves because of advanced age or sickness. In the Vagabonds Act 1530, Henry VIII decreed that "beggars who are old and incapable of working receive a beggar's licence. On the other hand, [there should be] whipping and imprisonment for sturdy vagabonds. They are to be tied to the cart-tail and whipped until the blood streams from their bodies, then they are to swear on oath to go back to their birthplace or to serve where they have lived the last three years and to 'put themselves to labour'. For the second arrest for vagabondage the whipping is to be repeated and half the ear sliced off; but for the third relapse the offender is to be executed as a hardened criminal and enemy of the common weal."[16]

In the Vagabonds Act 1547, Edward VI ordained that "if anyone refuses to work, he shall be condemned as a slave to the person who has denounced him as an idler. The master has the right to force him to do any work, no matter how vile, with whip and chains. If the slave is absent for a fortnight, he is condemned to slavery for life and is to be branded on forehead or back with the letter S; if he runs away three times, he is to be executed as a felon... If it happens that a vagabond has been idling about for three days, he is to be taken to his birthplace, branded with a red hot iron with the letter V on his breast, and set to work, in chains, on the roads or at some other labour... Every master may put an iron ring round the neck, arms or legs of his slave, by which to know him more easily."[17]

Caricature of a tramp

In England, the Vagabonds Act 1572 passed under Elizabeth I, defined a rogue as a person who had no land, no master, and no legitimate trade or source of income; it included rogues in the class of vagrants or vagabonds. If a person were apprehended as a rogue, he would be stripped to the waist, whipped until bleeding, and a hole, about the compass of an inch about, would be burned through the cartilage of his right ear with a hot iron.[18] A rogue who was charged with a second offence, unless taken in by someone who would give him work for one year, could face execution as a felony. A rogue charged with a third offence would only escape death if someone hired him for two years.

The Vagabonds Act 1572 decreed that "unlicensed beggars above fourteen years of age are to be severely flogged and branded on the left ear unless someone will take them into service for two years; in case of a repetition of the offence, if they are over eighteen, they are to be executed, unless someone will take them into service for two years; but for the third offence they are to be executed without mercy as felons." The same act laid the legal groundwork for the enforced exile (penal transportation) of "obdurate idlers" to "such parts beyond the seas as shall be […] assigned by the Privy Council".[19] At the time, this meant exile for a fixed term to the Virginia Company's plantations in America. Those who returned unlawfully from their place of exile faced death by hanging.

The Vagabonds Act 1597 banished and transplanted "incorrigible and dangerous rogues" overseas.

In Das Kapital (Capital Volume One, Chapter Twenty-Eight: Bloody Legislation Against the Expropriated, from the End of the 15th Century. Forcing Down of Wages by Acts of Parliament), Karl Marx wrote:

James 1: Any one wandering about and begging is declared a rogue and a vagabond. Justices of the peace in petty sessions are authorised to have them publicly whipped and for the first offence to imprison them for 6 months, for the second for 2 years. Whilst in prison they are to be whipped as much and as often as the justices of the peace think fit … Incorrigible and dangerous rogues are to be branded with an R on the left shoulder and set to hard labour, and if they are caught begging again, to be executed without mercy. These statutes, legally binding until the beginning of the 18th century, were only repealed by 12 Anne, c. 23.[20]

18世紀後半のミドルセックスでは、浮浪の疑いのある者は巡査や番兵に拘留され、身分を判断するために尋問する法的権限を持つ判事の前に連れて行かれることがあった。[21]浮浪者と宣告された場合、彼らは逮捕され、鞭打たれ、浮浪者の請負人によって郡から物理的に追放された。その仕事は彼らを郡の端まで連れて行き、旅の途中で次の郡の請負人に引き渡すことだった。[21]このプロセスは、その人が法的な定住地にたどり着くまで続けられ、それはしばしば出生地であったが、常にそうであるとは限らなかった。

1795年、スピーンハムランド制度（バークシャー・ブレッド法とも呼ばれる）[22]は、浮浪の根底にある問題の一部に対処しようと試みた。スピーンハムランド制度は、18世紀末から19世紀初頭にかけて、イングランドとウェールズの農村部の貧困を軽減することを目的とした屋外救済策の一種であった。この法律はエリザベス朝救貧法の改正であり、イギリスがフランス革命戦争とナポレオン戦争（1793～1815年）に介入したことが間接的な原因となって制定された。 [23]

1821年、既存の浮浪者法は庶民院特別委員会によって再検討され、「浮浪者に関する現行法に関する特別委員会の報告書」が出版された。[24]多くの証人から意見を聞いた後、特別委員会はいくつかの勧告を行った。特別委員会は、既存の浮浪者法は過度に複雑になっており、修正して単一の議会法に統合する必要があると判断した。浮浪者の逮捕と治安判事への連行に固定の報奨金を支払うことで、制度の濫用が生じていた。救貧法により、貧困救済を受ける浮浪者は、最後に合法的に定住した教区、多くの場合は出生教区に申請しなければならなかった。このため、有罪判決を受けた浮浪者は、有罪判決を受けて処罰された教区から自分の教区へと「渡される」というシステムになっていた。 「パス」制度により、彼らは浮浪者請負人によって移送されるようになり、この制度は濫用や詐欺につながりやすいことが判明した。また、浮浪罪に対する刑罰が不十分な場合が多く、特定の種類の浮浪者にはより長い刑期を科し、その間重労働を課すべきであるとの判断も下された。[24]

1821年下院浮浪者特別委員会の調査結果と勧告に基づき、[24]新たな議会法「グレートブリテンのイングランドと呼ばれる地域における怠惰な者、秩序を乱す者、およびならず者、浮浪者の処罰に関する法律」が提出されました。これは一般に1824年浮浪者法として知られるものです。[25] 1824年浮浪者法は、従来の浮浪者法を統合し、特別委員会の公聴会で特定された多くの詐欺や濫用に対処しました。1824年以降、多くの改正が行われていますが、この法律に含まれる犯罪の中には現在でも執行可能なものもあります。[26]

アメリカ合衆国

アート・ヤングによる政治漫画『大衆』、1917年

植民地時代

植民者は北米に定住した際に、イギリスの浮浪者法を導入しました。植民地時代から建国初期にかけて、浮浪者法は貧困層の移動と経済活動を取り締まるために使用されました。ホームレスの人々や少数民族は、特に浮浪者として逮捕されやすい状況でした。植民地時代および建国初期には、何千人もの住民が浮浪者として投獄され、通常は30日から60日間、時にはそれ以上の刑期が科されました。[27]

南北戦争後

アメリカ南北戦争後、南部のいくつかの州は、数十万人に及ぶ解放奴隷を管理するための法律であるブラック・コード（黒人法）を制定しました。1866年、バージニア州は「放蕩で放蕩な人間で溢れかえる」ことを恐れ、「浮浪者処罰法」を制定しました。ホームレスや失業者は、法定最長3ヶ月間、公共事業または民間事業で非常に低賃金で強制的に労働させられる可能性がありました。逃亡して再逮捕された場合、残りの刑期を最低生活費で、足かせと鎖を着けて働かなければなりませんでした。この法律は、宣言された意図ではなかったものの、事実上、貧困に陥った解放奴隷が家族を探し出し、生活を立て直そうとする試みを犯罪化しました。バージニア州の司令官アルフレッド・H・テリーは、この法律を一種の罠であり、「名ばかりの奴隷制」の再導入を企てるものとして非難し、その施行を禁じました。この法律がどのくらい頻繁に適用されたか、またその施行を防ぐために何が行われたかは不明だが、バージニア州では1904年まで法律として残っていた。 [28]他の南部諸州も同様の法律を制定し、黒人を囚人リース制度に送り込んだ。

アメリカの浮浪者取り締まり法では、少なくとも1930年代初頭から、「目に見える生計手段がない」行為は軽犯罪とされてきたが、徘徊、売春、酩酊、犯罪組織への参加などの理由で逮捕する口実として、しばしば利用されてきた。[29] 2020年以前、ルイジアナ州の刑法では、売春婦との交際、プロの賭博師であること、常習的な酒飲みであること、他人の社会福祉給付や年金で生活していることを浮浪者として明確に犯罪としていた。[30]この法律では、収入につながる仕事に就いていない健康な成人全員が浮浪者とみなされていた。

容認できないほど広範かつ曖昧な浮浪者法は、アメリカ合衆国憲法修正第14条の適正手続き条項に違反すると判断される可能性がある。[31]このような法律は、もはや政治デモ参加者や不人気なグループの「言論の自由」を妨害するために利用することができなくなった。曖昧な浮浪者法は、より狭く明確に定義されるようになった。[要出典]

パパクリストウ対ジャクソンビル市事件（ 405 US 156 (1972)）において、米国最高裁判所は、フロリダ州の浮浪者法はあまりにも曖昧で理解しにくいため違憲であるとの判決を下した。[32] [31]

それにもかかわらず、米国では攻撃的な物乞いを犯罪とする新しい地方法が制定されました。[33] [34]

参照

注記

  1. ^ 浮浪者、放浪者、悪党、放浪者、漂流者とも呼ばれる。[1]

参考文献

  1. ^ “Vagrant – Definition of vagrant in English by Oxford Dictionaries”. Oxford Dictionaries – English . 2020年3月1日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。
  2. ^ オックスフォード辞書オンライン版の「vagabond」の定義
  3. ^ The Discovery of Witchcraft (London, 1584) by Reginald Scot p. 6
  4. ^ Pope Francis (24 November 2013). "Evangelii Gaudium : Apostolic Exhortation on the Proclamation of the Gospel in Today's World". w2.vatican.va.
  5. ^ a b Kimber, Julie (August 2013). "Poor Laws: A Historiography of Vagrancy in Australia". History Compass. 11 (8): 537–550 – via EBSCO.
  6. ^ "Colonies of Benevolence" (PDF). Colonies of Benevolence. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  7. ^ The unsettled, "asocials" Archived 8 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine University of Minnesota
  8. ^ Ayaß, Wolfgang (1992). Das Arbeitshaus Breitenau. Bettler, Landstreicher, Prostituierte, Zuhälter und Fürsorgeempfänger in der Korrektions- und Landarmenanstalt Breitenau (1874–1949). Kassel. ISBN 978-3881226707.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^ Systems, Indaco. "Art 327 Vagabondajul | Codul Penal". Lege5 (in Romanian). Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  10. ^ "LEGE 278 04/07/2006 - Portal Legislativ". legislatie.just.ro. Retrieved 6 May 2024.
  11. ^ Закон РСФСР от 27 October 1960 «Об утверждении Уголовного кодекса РСФСР» (вместе с «Уголовным кодексом РСФСР») // Свод законов РСФСР. – т. 8, – с. 497, 1988 // Ведомости ВС РСФСР. – 1960. – № 40. – ст. 591
  12. ^ Закон «О внесении изменений и дополнений в Уголовный кодекс РСФСР, Уголовно-процессуальный кодекс РСФСР и кодекс РСФСР об административных правонарушениях» jn 5 December 1991 № 1982-I // Ведомости Съезда НД РФ и ВС РФ, N 52, 26.12.91, ст. 1867
  13. ^ Sanchez-Lopez, Luis (July 2023). "Policing the Pueblo: Vagrancy and Indigenous Citizenship in Oaxaca, 1848-1876". Ethnohistory. 70 (3): 385–404 – via EBSCO.
  14. ^ Original definition: "se, joka ilman elatusta omista varoistaan tahi toisen huolenpidon kautta työttömänä kuljeksii harjoittaen siveetöntä ja säädytöntä elämää..."
  15. ^ "Teema: Irtolaisuus – Portti". wiki.narc.fi.
  16. ^ Marx, Karl (1976). Capital Volume I. Ernest Mandel, Ben Fowkes. England: Pelican Books. p. 896. ISBN 978-0140445688.
  17. ^ An Act for the Punishing of Vagabonds (1 Edw. 6. c. 3)
  18. ^ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Theatre
  19. ^ An Act for the Punishment of Vagabonds (14 Eliz. 1. c. 4)
  20. ^ カール・マルクス（1976年）『資本論』第1巻、イギリス：ペリカンブックス、  pp.898-899、ISBN 978-0140445688。
  21. ^ ab ヒッチコック, ティム; クライムブル, アダム; ファルチーニ, ルイーズ (2014年12月13日). 「緩慢、怠惰、そして無秩序：18世紀後半のミドルセックスにおける浮浪者追放」(PDF) .社会史. 39 (4): 509– 527. doi :10.1080/03071022.2014.975943. hdl :2299/15233. S2CID  143937248.
  22. ^ ハモンド, JL ;バーバラ・ハモンド(1912). 『村の労働者 1760–1832』 ロンドン: ロングマン・グリーン社 p. 19.
  23. ^ カール・ポラニー、ロバート・モリソン・マクアイバー共著『大転換』第5巻、ボストン：ビーコン・プレス、1957年、168頁
  24. ^ abc 「浮浪者に関する既存法に関する特別委員会報告書」英国議会文書1821年 2018年5月4日閲覧。
  25. ^ 「1824年浮浪者法（制定当初）」（PDF） . Legislation.Gov.UK . 2018年5月4日閲覧。
  26. ^ 「1824年浮浪者法（現行版）」legislation.gov.uk . 2018年5月6日閲覧。
  27. ^ O'Brassill-Kulfan, Kristin (2019). 『Vagrants and Vagabonds: Poverty and Mobility in the Early American Republic』 NYU Press. ISBN 978-1479845255。
  28. ^ Tarter, B. Vagrancy Act of 1866, 2015年8月25日、Encyclopedia Virginia [1] 2018年3月30日閲覧
  29. ^ Goluboff, R.; Sorensen, A. (2018年12月20日). 「アメリカ合衆国の浮浪者法」.オックスフォード・アメリカ史研究百科事典. doi :10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.259.
  30. ^ LA Rev Stat § 14:107、http://legis.la.gov/legis/Law.aspx?d=78260
  31. ^ ab Rosenthal, Howard L. (1972年秋). 「憲法：浮浪者法 - 憲法修正第14条違反」. Washburn Law Journal . 12 (1): 82– 86 – Washburn Law Digital Collectionsより.
  32. ^ * Papachristou v. Jacksonville , 405 U.S. 156 (1972)のテキストは、CourtListener、Findlaw、Google Scholar、Justia、Library of Congress、OpenJurist、Oyez（口頭弁論の音声）から入手できます。
  33. ^ 法的意見 2008-1 (強引な物乞いについて) アーカイブ 2012年4月2日 ウェイバックマシンナッシュビル、2008年2月20日
  34. ^ Aggressive Panhandling & Solicitation – It's a Crime and You Can Help! City of Minneapolis

Further reading

  • Beier, A.L.; Ocobock, Paul, eds. (2008). Cast Out: Vagrancy and Homelessness in Global and Historical Perspective (1st ed.). Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0896802629.
  • Fumerton, Patricia (2006). Unsettled: The Culture of Mobility and the Working Poor in Early Modern England. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226269559.
  • O'Brassill-Kulfan, Kristin (2019). Vagrants and Vagabonds: Poverty and Mobility in the Early American Republic. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-1479845255.
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